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Zhang X, Liang Q, Cao Y, Yang T, An M, Liu Z, Yang J, Liu Y. Dual depletion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and tumor cells with self-assembled gemcitabine-celecoxib nano-twin drug for cancer chemoimmunotherapy. J Nanobiotechnology 2024; 22:319. [PMID: 38849938 PMCID: PMC11161946 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-024-02598-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) have played a significant role in facilitating tumor immune escape and inducing an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Eliminating MDSCs and tumor cells remains a major challenge in cancer immunotherapy. A novel approach has been developed using gemcitabine-celecoxib twin drug-based nano-assembled carrier-free nanoparticles (GEM-CXB NPs) for dual depletion of MDSCs and tumor cells in breast cancer chemoimmunotherapy. The GEM-CXB NPs exhibit prolonged blood circulation, leading to the preferential accumulation and co-release of GEM and CXB in tumors. This promotes synergistic chemotherapeutic activity by the proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction against 4T1 tumor cells. In addition, it enhances tumor immunogenicity by immunogenic cell death induction and MDSC-induced immunosuppression alleviation through the depletion of MDSCs. These mechanisms synergistically activate the antitumor immune function of cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells, inhibit the proliferation of regulatory T cells, and promote the M2 to M1 phenotype repolarization of tumor-associated macrophages, considerably enhancing the overall antitumor and anti-metastasis efficacy in BALB/c mice bearing 4T1 tumors. The simplified engineering of GEM-CXB NPs, with their dual depletion strategy targeting immunosuppressive cells and tumor cells, represents an advanced concept in cancer chemoimmunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojie Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Qiangwei Liang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Metabolic Cardiovascular Diseases Research, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Yongjin Cao
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Nursing, Wuxi Taihu University, Wuxi, 214064, China
| | - Ting Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Min An
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Zihan Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Jiayu Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Yanhua Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China.
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2
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Abdoli Shadbad M, Baghbanzadeh A, Baradaran B. hsa-miR-34a-5p enhances temozolomide anti-tumoral effects on glioblastoma: in-silico and in-vitro study. EXCLI JOURNAL 2024; 23:384-400. [PMID: 38655096 PMCID: PMC11036064 DOI: 10.17179/excli2023-6404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is a commonly diagnosed brain neoplasm with a poor prognosis. Accumulating evidence has highlighted the significance of microRNA (miR) dysregulation in tumor development and progression. This study investigated the effect of hsa-miR-34a-5p and its combination with temozolomide on GBM, the related molecular mechanisms, and the signaling pathway using in-silico and in-vitro approaches. The in-silico tumor bulk and single-cell RNA sequencing analyses were done on TCGA-GTEx, CGGA, GSE13276, GSE90603, and GSE182109 datasets. After selecting the A172 cell line, hsa-miR-34a-5p mimics were transfected, and the cell viability, migration, cell cycle, clonogenicity, and apoptosis of studied groups were studied using MTT, scratch, flow cytometry, colony formation, and Annexin V/PI assays. The mRNA expression of CASP9, CASP3, CASP8, MMP2, CD44, CDK6, CDK4, CCND1, RAF1, MAP2K1, MET, SRC, and CD274 was studied using qRT-PCR method. hsa-miR-34a-5p downregulated RAF1 expression, as the signaling factor of the MAPK pathway. The combined treatment significantly downregulated the expression of MET, SRC, and MAP2K1, leading to the inhibition of the MET/MAPK pathway compared to temozolomide. Besides exerting anti-tumoral effects on the cell viability, migration, cell cycle, apoptosis, and clonogenicity of A172 cells, its combination with temozolomide enhanced temozolomide anti-tumoral effect. Compared to temozolomide, the combined treatment significantly decreased CDK4, CDK6, CCND1, and MMP2 expression. hsa-miR-34a-5p targets RAF1, as the signaling factor of the MAPK pathway, and potentiates the temozolomide anti-tumoral effect on A172 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amir Baghbanzadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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3
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Zhang W, He Y, Tang Y, Dai W, Si Y, Mao F, Xu J, Yu C, Sun X. A meta-analysis of application of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor-based immunotherapy in unresectable locally advanced triple-negative breast cancer. Immunotherapy 2023; 15:1073-1088. [PMID: 37337734 DOI: 10.2217/imt-2023-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Aims: The purpose of this study was to explore the efficacy of immunotherapy for patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Materials & methods: Randomized clinical trials comparing immunotherapy with chemotherapy for advanced TNBC patients were included. Results: A total of six articles (3183 patients) were eligible for this meta-analysis. PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor-based immunotherapy combined with chemotherapy can significantly increase the progression-free survival (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.82; 95% CI = 0.76-1.14; p < 0.001) of unresectable locally advanced or metastatic TNBC patients without effect on overall survival, compared with chemotherapy. Conclusion: PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors-based immunotherapy can safely improve progression-free survival in patients with unresectable locally advanced or metastatic TNBC, but has no effect on overall survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Department of Breast Surgery, Ningbo No. 2 Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315010, China
| | - Yujing He
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310053, China
| | - Yuning Tang
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310053, China
| | - Wei Dai
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310053, China
| | - Yuexiu Si
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310053, China
| | - Feiyan Mao
- Department of General Surgery, Ningbo No. 2 Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315010, China
| | - Jiaxuan Xu
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310053, China
| | - Chiyuan Yu
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310053, China
| | - Xing Sun
- Department of General Surgery, Ningbo No. 2 Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315010, China
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4
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Liu H, Wang Z, Zhou Y, Yang Y. MDSCs in breast cancer: an important enabler of tumor progression and an emerging therapeutic target. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1199273. [PMID: 37465670 PMCID: PMC10350567 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1199273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Women worldwide are more likely to develop breast cancer (BC) than any other type of cancer. The treatment of BC depends on the subtype and stage of the cancer, such as surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Although significant progress has been made in recent years, advanced or metastatic BC presents a poor prognosis, due to drug resistance and recurrences. During embryonic development, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) develop that suppress the immune system. By inhibiting anti-immune effects and promoting non-immune mechanisms such as tumor cell stemness, epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) and angiogenesis, MDSCs effectively promote tumor growth and metastasis. In various BC models, peripheral tissues, and tumor microenvironments (TME), MDSCs have been found to amplification. Clinical progression or poor prognosis are strongly associated with increased MDSCs. In this review, we describe the activation, recruitment, and differentiation of MDSCs production in BC, the involvement of MDSCs in BC progression, and the clinical characteristics of MDSCs as a potential BC therapy target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyu Liu
- Department of Radiotherapy, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhicheng Wang
- National Health Commission (NHC) Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuntao Zhou
- National Health Commission (NHC) Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yanming Yang
- Department of Radiotherapy, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
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5
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Dastmalchi N, Safaralizadeh R, Khojasteh SMB, Shadbad MA, Hosseinpourfeizi MA, Azarbarzin S, Rajabi A, Baradaran B. The combined restoration of miR-424-5p and miR-142-3p effectively inhibits MCF-7 breast cancer cell line via modulating apoptosis, proliferation, colony formation, cell cycle and autophagy. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49:8325-8335. [PMID: 35666424 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-022-07646-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The combined restoration of tumor-suppressive microRNAs (miRs) has been identified as a promising approach for inhibiting breast cancer development. This study investigated the effect of the combined restoration of miR-424-5p and miR-142-3p on MCF-7 cells and compared the efficacy of the combined therapy with the monotherapies with miR-424-5p and miR-142-3p. METHODS After transfection of miR-424-5p and miR-142-3p mimics into MCF-7 cells in the combined and separated manner, the proliferation of tumoral cells was assessed by the MTT assay. Also, the apoptosis, autophagy, and cell cycle of the cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. Western blot and qRT-PCR were used to study the expression levels of c-Myc, Bcl-2, Bax, STAT-3, Oct-3, and Beclin-1. RESULTS Our results have demonstrated that the combined restoration of miR-424-5p and miR-142-3p is more effective in inhibiting tumor proliferation via upregulating Bax and Beclin-1 and downregulating Bcl-2 and c-Myc. Besides, the combined therapy has arrested the cell cycle in the sub-G1 and G2 phases and has suppressed the clonogenicity via downregulating STAT-3 and Oct-3, respectively. CONCLUSION The combined restoration of miR-424-5p and miR-142-3p is more effective in inhibiting MCF-7 breast cancer development than monotherapies with miR-424-5p and miR-142-3p.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narges Dastmalchi
- Department of Biology, University College of Nabi Akram, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Reza Safaralizadeh
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.
| | | | | | | | - Shirin Azarbarzin
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ali Rajabi
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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6
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Hajiasgharzadeh K, Jafarlou M, Mansoori B, Dastmalchi N, Baradaran B, Khabbazi A. Inflammatory reflex disruption in COVID-19. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL NEUROIMMUNOLOGY 2022; 13:CEN312703. [PMID: 35600135 PMCID: PMC9111569 DOI: 10.1111/cen3.12703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was identified in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and caused coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is still a global pandemic. In most infected people, SARS-CoV-2 can only cause moderate symptoms, while in other patients, it leads to severe illness and eventually death. Although the main clinical manifestation of COVID-19 is often seen in the lungs, this disease affects almost all body organs. The excessive and prolonged release of inflammatory cytokines that may occur in COVID-19 patients, known as cytokine storms, stimulates undesired immune responses and can cause various tissues damage. In the current review article, we focus on the potential advantages of the intrinsic cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP) as the efferent arm of inflammatory reflex in COVID-19 management. Considering this endogenous protective mechanism against chronic inflammation, we focused on the effects of SARS-CoV-2 in the destruction of this anti-inflammatory system. Several studies indicated the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with the alpha7 subtype of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor as the effector molecule of the inflammatory reflex. On the other hand, neurological manifestations have increasingly been identified as significant extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19. The rational connection between these findings and COVID-19 pathogenesis may be an important issue in both our understanding and dealing with this disease. COVID-19 is deeply rooted in our daily life and requires an urgent need for the establishment of effective therapeutic options, and all the possible treatments must be considered for the control of such inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalil Hajiasgharzadeh
- Immunology Research CenterTabriz University of Medical SciencesTabrizIran
- Connective Tissue Diseases Research CenterTabriz University of Medical SciencesTabrizIran
| | - Mahdi Jafarlou
- Immunology Research CenterTabriz University of Medical SciencesTabrizIran
| | - Behzad Mansoori
- Cellular and Molecular Oncogenesis ProgramThe Wistar InstitutePhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | | | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research CenterTabriz University of Medical SciencesTabrizIran
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research CenterTabriz University of Medical SciencesTabrizIran
| | - Alireza Khabbazi
- Connective Tissue Diseases Research CenterTabriz University of Medical SciencesTabrizIran
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7
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Abdoli Shadbad M, Hemmat N, Khaze Shahgoli V, Derakhshani A, Baradaran F, Brunetti O, Fasano R, Bernardini R, Silvestris N, Baradaran B. A Systematic Review on PD-1 Blockade and PD-1 Gene-Editing of CAR-T Cells for Glioma Therapy: From Deciphering to Personalized Medicine. Front Immunol 2022; 12:788211. [PMID: 35126356 PMCID: PMC8807490 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.788211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) can attenuate chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cell-mediated anti-tumoral immune responses. In this regard, co-administration of anti-PD-1 with CAR-T cells and PD-1 gene-editing of CAR-T cells have been suggested to disrupt this inhibitory axis. Herein, we aim to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of these two approaches and propose a novel strategy to ameliorate the prognosis of glioma patients. Methods Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science were systematically searched to obtain relevant peer-reviewed studies published before March 7, 2021. Then, the current study was conducted based on the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) statements. The random-effect model was applied to evaluate the effect size of administrated agents on the survival of animal models bearing gliomas using RevMan version 5.4. The Cochran Q test and I2 were performed to assess the possible between-study heterogeneity. Egger's and Begg and Mazumdar's tests were performed to objectively assess potential asymmetry and publication bias using CMA version 2. Results Anti-PD-1 can substantially increase the survival of animal models on second-generation CAR-T cells. Also, PD-1 knockdown can remarkably prolong the survival of animal models on third-generation CAR-T cells. Regardless of the CAR-T generations, PD-1 gene-edited CAR-T cells can considerably enhance the survival of animal-bearing gliomas compared to the conventional CAR-T cells. Conclusions The single-cell sequencing of tumoral cells and cells residing in the tumor microenvironment can provide valuable insights into the patient-derived neoantigens and the expression profile of inhibitory immune checkpoint molecules in tumor bulk. Thus, single-cell sequencing-guided fourth-generation CAR-T cells can cover patient-derived neoantigens expressed in various subpopulations of tumoral cells and inhibit related inhibitory immune checkpoint molecules. The proposed approach can improve anti-tumoral immune responses, decrease the risk of immune-related adverse events, reduce the risk of glioma relapse, and address the vast inter-and intra-heterogeneity of gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Research Center for Evidence-Based Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Nima Hemmat
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Vahid Khaze Shahgoli
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Cancer and Inflammation Research, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Afshin Derakhshani
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology, IRCCS Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, Bari, Italy
| | - Farzad Baradaran
- Department of Computer (Computer engineering–Artificial Intelligence), Shabestar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shabestar, Iran
| | - Oronzo Brunetti
- Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II” of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Rossella Fasano
- Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II” of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Renato Bernardini
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Nicola Silvestris
- Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II” of Bari, Bari, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology (DIMO), University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Immunology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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8
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Dastmalchi N, Azarbarzin S, Safaralizadeh R, Khojasteh SMB, Shadbad MA, Amini M, Baghbanzadeh A, Asl ER, Baghbani E, Lotfinejad P, Baradaran B. The combined therapy of miR-383-5p restoration and paclitaxel for treating MDA-MB-231 breast cancer. Med Oncol 2021; 39:9. [PMID: 34761351 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-021-01606-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The deregulation of microRNAs (miRs) has been identified in tumor development. Indeed, the restoration of tumor-suppressive miRs has been associated with inhibited tumor development in various cancers. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the impact of combined miR-383-5p restoration, as a tumor-suppressive miR, with taxol therapy in suppressing MDA-MB-231 breast cancer development. MDA-MB-231 cell line was restored with miR-383-5p and treated with paclitaxel both in combined and separate manners. The MTT experiment was carried out to measure the cytotoxicity of the therapeutic approaches on the tumoral cells. Besides, flow cytometry was conducted to assess apoptosis and cell cycle status following the treatments. Furthermore, the expression levels of critical factors contributed to tumor proliferation, migration, apoptosis were investigated via the qRT-PCR and western blotting techniques. The outcomes pointed out that the miR-383-5p might substantially enhance the chemosensitivity of MDA-MB-231 to taxol. Besides, miR-383-5p restoration and the combined therapy of miR-383-5p restoration with paclitaxel could remarkably increase apoptosis, decrease cell viability, arrest the cell cycle, inhibit clonogenicity, suppress tumor migration, suppress the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, and down-regulate PD-L1 expression of BC cells. The restoration of miR-383-5p can enhance the chemosensitivity of MDA-MB-231 cells to taxol. Despite the anti-tumoral effects of miR-383-5p restoration on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer development, the combined therapy of miR-383-5p restoration with paclitaxel can be more effective in repressing MDA-MB-231 breast cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narges Dastmalchi
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, 5166616471, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Shirin Azarbarzin
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, 5166616471, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Reza Safaralizadeh
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, 5166616471, Tabriz, Iran.
| | | | - Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, 5166/15731, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Amini
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, 5166/15731, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amir Baghbanzadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, 5166/15731, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Elmira Roshani Asl
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, 5166/15731, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Elham Baghbani
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, 5166/15731, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Parisa Lotfinejad
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, 5166/15731, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, 5166/15731, Tabriz, Iran.
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9
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Abdoli Shadbad M, Hosseinkhani N, Asadzadeh Z, Derakhshani A, Karim Ahangar N, Hemmat N, Lotfinejad P, Brunetti O, Silvestris N, Baradaran B. A Systematic Review to Clarify the Prognostic Values of CD44 and CD44 +CD24 - Phenotype in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Patients: Lessons Learned and The Road Ahead. Front Oncol 2021; 11:689839. [PMID: 34434894 PMCID: PMC8381605 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.689839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
As a unique population of tumor bulk, cancer stem cells have been implicated in tumor relapse and chemoresistance in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Therefore, understanding the phenotype of cancer stem cells can pave the way for introducing novel molecular targeted therapies for treating TNBC patients. Preclinical studies have identified CD44+CD24-/low as a cancer stem cell phenotype; however, clinical studies have reported seemingly controversial results regarding the prognostic values of CD44 and CD44+CD24-/low phenotype in TNBC patients. To critically review the clinicopathological significance and prognostic values of CD44 and CD44+CD24-/low phenotype in TNBC patients, the Scopus, Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science databases were systematically searched to obtain the relevant records published before 20 October 2020. Based on nine included studies, CD44 and CD44+CD24-/low phenotype are associated with inferior prognosis in TNBC patients. Moreover, these cancer stem cell markers have been associated with advanced tumor stage, tumor size, higher tumor grade, tumor metastasis, and lymphatic involvement in TNBC patients. Our evidence has also indicated that, unlike the treatment-naïve TNBC patients, the tumoral cells of chemoradiotherapy-treated TNBC patients can upregulate the CD44+CD24-/low phenotype and establish an inverse association with androgen receptor (AR), leading to the inferior prognosis of affected patients. In summary, CD44 and CD44+CD24-/low phenotype can be utilized to determine TNBC patients' prognosis in the pathology department as a routine practice, and targeting these phenotypes can substantially improve the prognosis of TNBC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Research Center for Evidence-Based Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Negar Hosseinkhani
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Zahra Asadzadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Afshin Derakhshani
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology, IRCCS Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, Bari, Italy
| | - Noora Karim Ahangar
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Nima Hemmat
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Parisa Lotfinejad
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Oronzo Brunetti
- Medical Oncology Unit, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, Bari, Italy
| | - Nicola Silvestris
- Medical Oncology Unit, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, Bari, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Aldo Moro University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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10
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Shadbad MA, Safaei S, Brunetti O, Derakhshani A, Lotfinejad P, Mokhtarzadeh A, Hemmat N, Racanelli V, Solimando AG, Argentiero A, Silvestris N, Baradaran B. A Systematic Review on the Therapeutic Potentiality of PD-L1-Inhibiting MicroRNAs for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Toward Single-Cell Sequencing-Guided Biomimetic Delivery. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12081206. [PMID: 34440380 PMCID: PMC8391239 DOI: 10.3390/genes12081206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)/programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) is a well-established inhibitory immune checkpoint axis in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Growing evidence indicates that tumoral PD-L1 can lead to TNBC development. Although conventional immune checkpoint inhibitors have improved TNBC patients’ prognosis, their effect is mainly focused on improving anti-tumoral immune responses without substantially regulating oncogenic signaling pathways in tumoral cells. Moreover, the conventional immune checkpoint inhibitors cannot impede the de novo expression of oncoproteins, like PD-L1, in tumoral cells. Accumulating evidence has indicated that the restoration of specific microRNAs (miRs) can downregulate tumoral PD-L1 and inhibit TNBC development. Since miRs can target multiple mRNAs, miR-based gene therapy can be an appealing approach to inhibit the de novo expression of oncoproteins, like PD-L1, restore anti-tumoral immune responses, and regulate various intracellular singling pathways in TNBC. Therefore, we conducted the current systematic review based on the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) to provide a comprehensive and unbiased synthesis of currently available evidence regarding the effect of PD-L1-inhibiting miRs restoration on TNBC development and tumor microenvironment. For this purpose, we systematically searched the Cochrane Library, Embase, Scopus, PubMed, ProQuest, Web of Science, Ovid, and IranDoc databases to obtain the relevant peer-reviewed studies published before 25 May 2021. Based on the current evidence, the restoration of miR-424-5p, miR-138-5p, miR-570-3p, miR-200c-3p, miR-383-5p, miR-34a-5p, miR-3609, miR-195-5p, and miR-497-5p can inhibit tumoral PD-L1 expression, transform immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment into the pro-inflammatory tumor microenvironment, inhibit tumor proliferation, suppress tumor migration, enhance chemosensitivity of tumoral cells, stimulate tumor apoptosis, arrest cell cycle, repress the clonogenicity of tumoral cells, and regulate various oncogenic signaling pathways in TNBC cells. Concerning the biocompatibility of biomimetic carriers and the valuable insights provided by the single-cell sequencing technologies, single-cell sequencing-guided biomimetic delivery of these PD-L1-inhibiting miRs can decrease the toxicity of traditional approaches, increase the specificity of miR-delivery, enhance the efficacy of miR delivery, and provide the affected patients with personalized cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Research Center for Evidence-Based Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614766, Iran; (M.A.S.); (P.L.)
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran; (S.S.); (A.D.); (N.H.); (A.M.)
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran
| | - Sahar Safaei
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran; (S.S.); (A.D.); (N.H.); (A.M.)
| | - Oronzo Brunetti
- Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, 70124 Bari, Italy; (O.B.); (A.G.S.); (A.A.)
| | - Afshin Derakhshani
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran; (S.S.); (A.D.); (N.H.); (A.M.)
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology, IRCCS Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Parisa Lotfinejad
- Research Center for Evidence-Based Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614766, Iran; (M.A.S.); (P.L.)
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran; (S.S.); (A.D.); (N.H.); (A.M.)
| | - Ahad Mokhtarzadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran; (S.S.); (A.D.); (N.H.); (A.M.)
| | - Nima Hemmat
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran; (S.S.); (A.D.); (N.H.); (A.M.)
| | - Vito Racanelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Oncology, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy;
| | - Antonio Giovanni Solimando
- Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, 70124 Bari, Italy; (O.B.); (A.G.S.); (A.A.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Oncology, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy;
| | - Antonella Argentiero
- Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, 70124 Bari, Italy; (O.B.); (A.G.S.); (A.A.)
| | - Nicola Silvestris
- Medical Oncology Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori Giovanni Paolo II, 70124 Bari, Italy; (O.B.); (A.G.S.); (A.A.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Oncology, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy;
- Correspondence: (N.S.); (B.B.)
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Iran; (S.S.); (A.D.); (N.H.); (A.M.)
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614766, Iran
- Correspondence: (N.S.); (B.B.)
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11
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Tumor microenvironment of human breast cancer, and feline mammary carcinoma as a potential study model. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2021; 1876:188587. [PMID: 34237352 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2021.188587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the tumor microenvironment (TME) has been a research hotspot, as it is composed of distinct cellular and non-cellular elements that may influence the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of breast cancer patients. Cancer cells are able to escape immune control through an immunoediting process which depends on complex communication networks between immune and cancer cells. Thus, a better understanding of the immune cell infiltrate in the breast cancer microenvironment is crucial for the development of more effective therapeutic approaches. In this review article, we overview the different actors that orchestrate the complexity of the TME, including tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), natural killer cells, tumor infiltrating dendritic cells (TIDCs), tumor associated macrophages (TAMs), tumor associated neutrophils (TANs), cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), distinct pro-angiogenic factors and immune checkpoint biomarkers. Additionally, we summarize the recent advances in the TME of feline mammary carcinoma (FMC). FMC has been proposed as a reliable cancer model for the study of human breast cancer, as they share clinicopathological, histopathological and epidemiological features, as well as the pathways involved in cancer initiation and progression.
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12
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Derakhshani A, Rostami Z, Safarpour H, Shadbad MA, Nourbakhsh NS, Argentiero A, Taefehshokr S, Tabrizi NJ, Kooshkaki O, Astamal RV, Singh PK, Taefehshokr N, Alizadeh N, Silvestris N, Baradaran B. From Oncogenic Signaling Pathways to Single-Cell Sequencing of Immune Cells: Changing the Landscape of Cancer Immunotherapy. Molecules 2021; 26:2278. [PMID: 33920054 PMCID: PMC8071039 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26082278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, there have been remarkable advances in understanding the signaling pathways involved in cancer development. It is well-established that cancer is caused by the dysregulation of cellular pathways involved in proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, cell metabolism, migration, cell polarity, and differentiation. Besides, growing evidence indicates that extracellular matrix signaling, cell surface proteoglycans, and angiogenesis can contribute to cancer development. Given the genetic instability and vast intra-tumoral heterogeneity revealed by the single-cell sequencing of tumoral cells, the current approaches cannot eliminate the mutating cancer cells. Besides, the polyclonal expansion of tumor-infiltrated lymphocytes in response to tumoral neoantigens cannot elicit anti-tumoral immune responses due to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Nevertheless, the data from the single-cell sequencing of immune cells can provide valuable insights regarding the expression of inhibitory immune checkpoints/related signaling factors in immune cells, which can be used to select immune checkpoint inhibitors and adjust their dosage. Indeed, the integration of the data obtained from the single-cell sequencing of immune cells with immune checkpoint inhibitors can increase the response rate of immune checkpoint inhibitors, decrease the immune-related adverse events, and facilitate tumoral cell elimination. This study aims to review key pathways involved in tumor development and shed light on single-cell sequencing. It also intends to address the shortcomings of immune checkpoint inhibitors, i.e., their varied response rates among cancer patients and increased risk of autoimmunity development, via applying the data from the single-cell sequencing of immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afshin Derakhshani
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51656-65811, Iran; (A.D.); (M.A.S.); (S.T.); (N.J.T.); (R.V.A.); (N.A.)
- IRCCS Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II” of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy;
| | - Zeinab Rostami
- Student Research Committee, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand 97178-53577, Iran; (Z.R.); (O.K.)
| | - Hossein Safarpour
- Cellular & Molecular Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand 97178-53577, Iran;
| | - Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51656-65811, Iran; (A.D.); (M.A.S.); (S.T.); (N.J.T.); (R.V.A.); (N.A.)
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51666-14766, Iran
| | | | | | - Sina Taefehshokr
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51656-65811, Iran; (A.D.); (M.A.S.); (S.T.); (N.J.T.); (R.V.A.); (N.A.)
| | - Neda Jalili Tabrizi
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51656-65811, Iran; (A.D.); (M.A.S.); (S.T.); (N.J.T.); (R.V.A.); (N.A.)
| | - Omid Kooshkaki
- Student Research Committee, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand 97178-53577, Iran; (Z.R.); (O.K.)
| | - Reza Vaezi Astamal
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51656-65811, Iran; (A.D.); (M.A.S.); (S.T.); (N.J.T.); (R.V.A.); (N.A.)
| | - Pankaj Kumar Singh
- Principal Research Technologist, Department of Radiation Oncology, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Rd S, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA;
| | - Nima Taefehshokr
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Human Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada;
| | - Nazila Alizadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51656-65811, Iran; (A.D.); (M.A.S.); (S.T.); (N.J.T.); (R.V.A.); (N.A.)
| | - Nicola Silvestris
- IRCCS Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II” of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy;
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51656-65811, Iran; (A.D.); (M.A.S.); (S.T.); (N.J.T.); (R.V.A.); (N.A.)
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51666-14766, Iran
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13
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Shadbad MA, Hajiasgharzadeh K, Derakhshani A, Silvestris N, Baghbanzadeh A, Racanelli V, Baradaran B. From Melanoma Development to RNA-Modified Dendritic Cell Vaccines: Highlighting the Lessons From the Past. Front Immunol 2021; 12:623639. [PMID: 33692796 PMCID: PMC7937699 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.623639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Although melanoma remains the deadliest skin cancer, the current treatment has not resulted in the desired outcomes. Unlike chemotherapy, immunotherapy has provided more tolerable approaches and revolutionized cancer therapy. Although dendritic cell-based vaccines have minor side effects, the undesirable response rates of traditional approaches have posed questions about their clinical translation. The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment can be the underlying reason for their low response rates. Immune checkpoints and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase have been implicated in the induction of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Growing evidence indicates that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Protein kinase B (PKB) (PI3K/AKT) pathways, as the main oncogenic pathways of melanoma, can upregulate the tumoral immune checkpoints, like programmed death-ligand 1. This study briefly represents the main oncogenic pathways of melanoma and highlights the cross-talk between these oncogenic pathways with indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, tumoral immune checkpoints, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Moreover, this study sheds light on a novel tumor antigen on melanoma, which has substantial roles in tumoral immune checkpoints expression, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase secretion, and stimulating the oncogenic pathways. Finally, this review collects the lessons from the previous unsuccessful trials and integrates their lessons with new approaches in RNA-modified dendritic cell vaccines. Unlike traditional approaches, the advances in single-cell RNA-sequencing techniques and RNA-modified dendritic cell vaccines along with combined therapy of the immune checkpoint inhibitors, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase inhibitor, and RNA-modified dendritic cell-based vaccine can overcome these auto-inductive loops and pave the way for developing robust dendritic cell-based vaccines with the most favorable response rate and the least side effects.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Neoplasm/adverse effects
- Antigens, Neoplasm/genetics
- Antigens, Neoplasm/immunology
- Antigens, Neoplasm/therapeutic use
- Cancer Vaccines/adverse effects
- Cancer Vaccines/genetics
- Cancer Vaccines/immunology
- Cancer Vaccines/therapeutic use
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Dendritic Cells/transplantation
- Humans
- Immune Checkpoint Proteins/metabolism
- Indoleamine-Pyrrole 2,3,-Dioxygenase/metabolism
- Melanoma/genetics
- Melanoma/immunology
- Melanoma/metabolism
- Melanoma/therapy
- Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells/immunology
- Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells/metabolism
- RNA, Small Interfering/adverse effects
- RNA, Small Interfering/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering/immunology
- RNA, Small Interfering/therapeutic use
- Signal Transduction
- Skin Neoplasms/genetics
- Skin Neoplasms/immunology
- Skin Neoplasms/metabolism
- Skin Neoplasms/therapy
- Tumor Escape
- Tumor Microenvironment
- Vaccines, Synthetic/adverse effects
- Vaccines, Synthetic/therapeutic use
- mRNA Vaccines
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Afshin Derakhshani
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II” of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Nicola Silvestris
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II” of Bari, Bari, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Aldo Moro University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Amir Baghbanzadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Vito Racanelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Aldo Moro University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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14
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Targeting TGF-β-Mediated SMAD Signaling Pathway via Novel Recombinant Cytotoxin II: A Potent Protein from Naja naja oxiana Venom in Melanoma. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25215148. [PMID: 33167431 PMCID: PMC7663949 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the current treatments have not resulted in the desired outcomes for melanoma patients, there is a need to identify more effective medications. Together with other snake venom proteins, cytotoxin-II has shown promising results in tumoral cells. In this study, recombinant cytotoxin-II (rCTII) was expressed in SHuffle® T7 Express cells, while the epitope mapping of rCTII was performed to reveal the antibody-binding regions of rCTII. The MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay was used to assess the viability of SK-MEL-3 and HFF-2 cells after treating these cells with rCTII. The qRT-PCR was performed to evaluate the expression levels of matrix metallopeptidase 3 (MMP-3), SMAD2, SMAD3, caspase-8, caspase-9, and miR-214 in order to reveal the rCTII-induced signaling pathways in melanoma. Our results have shown that two regions of amino acids, 6-16 and 19-44, as predicted epitopes of this toxin, are essential for understanding the toxicity of rCTII. Treating the melanoma cells with rCTII substantially inhibited the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β)-SMAD signaling pathway and down-regulated the expression of MMP-3 and miR-214 as well. This cytotoxin also restored apoptosis mainly via the intrinsic pathway. The down-regulation of MMP-3 and miR-214 might be associated with the anti-metastatic property of rCTII in melanoma. The inhibitory effect of rCTII on the TGF-β signaling pathway might be associated with increased apoptosis and decreased cancer cell proliferation. It is interesting to see that the IC50 value of rCTII has been lower in the melanoma cells than non-tumoral cells, which may indicate its potential effects as a drug. In conclusion, rCTII, as a novel medication, might serve as a potent and efficient anticancer drug in melanoma.
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