Iron metabolism and the role of the iron-regulating hormone hepcidin in health and disease

Two Birds with One Stone: Empowering Probiotic with Nanoenzyme for the Treatment of Inflammatory and Anemia through Oral Administration

In the context of ulcerative colitis (UC), iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is often presented as a prevalent systemic manifestation. However, there is an absence of an effective strategy for the specific case of UC with IDA. Herein, mendelian randomization (MR) analysis is applied to confirm the causal association between UC and iron-related conditions. Accordingly, we have developed a probiotic-based therapeutic approach that synergistically alleviates inflammation and IDA. Probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) is functionalized by the Fe3O4 nanoenzyme and hyaluronan (HA) through electrostatic layer-by-layer (LBL) adsorption. As expected, the obtained EcN@Fe3O4/HA exhibits excellent properties in vitro, such as gastric acid resistance and ROS-scavenging capability. Upon oral administration, EcN@Fe3O4/HA shows remarkable adhesion in vivo, particularly in inflamed mice. Moreover, EcN@Fe3O4/HA shows a "two birds with one stone" effect in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced mice. First, it exerts anti-inflammatory effects through promoting the expression of tight junction proteins and regulating the gut microbiota. Second, it addresses the issue of IDA. EcN@Fe3O4/HA effectively ameliorates IDA in DSS-induced mice through iron supplementation, EPO upregulation, and iron homeostasis modulation, resulting in enhanced RBC morphology and elevated cell counts. Therefore, the proposed strategy provides inspiration for future management of diseases and related complications.

Iron and energy metabolic interactions in Treg-mediated immune regulation

Immunometabolism, the study of how metabolic processes influence immune cell function, has emerged as a critical field in understanding the regulation of immune tolerance and the pathological mechanisms underlying autoimmune diseases. Intracellular metabolic pathways not only provide the necessary energy for immune cell survival and activity but also shape the differentiation, phenotype, proliferation, and effector functions of immune cells. This is particularly evident in CD4+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg), which are pivotal for maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing autoimmune reactions. Strong experimental evidence highlights the profound impact of metabolism on Treg. Their anti-inflammatory function and ability to suppress excessive immune responses depend on the integration of metabolic cues with their transcriptional and signaling networks. Iron metabolism and mitochondrial dynamics are among the key factors influencing Treg function. This review focuses on how iron and mitochondrial metabolism shape Treg biology and function.

Ferroptosis, from the virus point of view: opportunities and challenges

Ferroptosis is a new type of cell death, which is mainly dependent on the formation and accumulation of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxides mediated by iron. It is distinct from other forms of regulation of cell death in morphology, immunology, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Various cell death mechanisms have been observed in many viral infections, and virus-induced cell death has long been considered as a double-edged sword that can inhibit or aggravate viral infections. However, understanding of the role of ferroptosis in various viral infections is limited. Special attention will be paid to the mechanisms of ferroptosis in mediating viral infection and antiviral treatment associated with ferroptosis. In this paper, we outlined the mechanism of ferroptosis. Additionally, this paper also review research on ferroptosis from the perspective of the virus, discussed the research status of ferroptosis in virus infection and classified and summarized research on the interaction between viral infections and ferroptosis.

Diagnosis and treatment of iron deficiency in chronic heart failure : Position statement of the heart failure working group of the Austrian Society of Cardiology

Iron deficiency (ID) is a common comorbidity in heart failure (HF), affecting 55% of chronic and up to 80% of acute HF patients, regardless of ejection fraction (EF). An ID is associated with reduced quality of life, impaired exercise capacity (VO2 peak), higher hospitalization rate and lower survival rate. It is also an independent predictor of HF outcomes. This consensus statement critically reviews the diagnostic criteria for ID in HF and provides recommendations for their use. The efficacy and safety of intravenous iron supplements, including ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) and ferric derisomaltose (FDI), are analyzed highlighting the indications and potential adverse effects. Key clinical trials and guideline recommendations are summarized. In summary, the document addresses the diagnostics, treatment and monitoring of ID in HF.

Sex and Gender Differences in Iron Chelation

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

In the absence of physiological mechanisms to excrete excessive iron, the administration of iron chelation therapy is necessary. Age and hormones have an impact on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of the medications used to treat iron excess, resulting in notable sex- and gender-related variances.

METHODS

Here, we aimed to review the literature on sex and gender in iron overload assessment and treatment.

RESULTS

The development of iron chelators has shown to be a successful therapy for lowering the body's iron levels and averting the tissue damage and organ failure that follows. Numerous studies have described how individual factors can impact chelation treatment, potentially impact therapeutic response, and/or result in inadequate chelation or elevated toxicity; however, most of these data have not considered male and female patients as different groups, and particularly, the effect of hormonal variations in women have never been considered.

CONCLUSIONS

An effective iron chelation treatment should take into account sex and gender differences.

Picein alleviates oxidative stress and promotes bone regeneration in osteoporotic bone defect by inhibiting ferroptosis via Nrf2/HO-1/GPX4 pathway

Osteoporosis (OP) can result in slower bone regeneration than the normal condition due to abnormal oxidative stress and high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a condition detrimental for bone formation, making the OP-related bone healing a significant clinical challenge. As the osteogenic differentiation ability of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) is closely related to bone regeneration; currently, this study assessed the effects of Picein on BMSCs in vitro and bone regeneration in osteoporotic bone defect in vivo. Cell viability was determined by CCK-8 assay. The production of (ROS), malonaldehyde, superoxide dismutase activities, and glutathione was evaluated by using commercially available kits, and a flow cytometry analysis was adopted to detect macrophage polarization. Osteogenic capacity of BMSCs was evaluated by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, ALP staining, and Alizarin red S staining. The expression of osteogenic-related proteins (OPN, Runx-2, OCN) and osteogenic-related genes (ALP, BMP-4, COL-1, and Osterix) were evaluated by Western blotting and real-time PCR (RT-PCR). In addition, proliferation, migration ability, and angiogenic capacity of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were evaluated by EdU staining, scratch test, transwell assay, and tube formation assay, respectively. Angiogenic-related genes (VEGF, vWF, CD31) were also evaluated by RT-PCR. Results showed that Picein alleviated erastin-induced oxidative stress, enhanced osteogenic differentiation capacity of BMSCs, angiogenesis of HUVECs, and protects cells against ferroptosis through Nrf2/HO-1/GPX4 axis. Moreover, Picein regulate immune microenvironment by promoting the polarization of M2 macrophages in vitro. In addition, Picein also reduce the inflammation levels and promotes bone regeneration in osteoporotic bone defect in OP rat models in vivo. Altogether, these results suggested that Picein can promote bone regeneration and alleviate oxidative stress via Nrf2/HO-1/GPX4 pathway, offering Picein as a novel antioxidant agent for treating osteoporotic bone defect.

Association between hepcidin levels and inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

Hepcidin has a crucial role in iron homeostasis upon inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Thus, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the overall association between serum hepcidin concentrations and IBD. Based on the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) protocols, an electronic literature search was conducted on PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science until June 2020. Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) diagnosis of IBD, (2) observational design, and (3) measured serum hepcidin and prohepcidin concentrations in IBD patients and control group. Overall, 10 studies including 1184 participants were evaluated. Random-effects meta-analysis revealed that subjects with IBD had 7.22 ng/mL (95% CI: 2.10, 12.34; p = .006) higher serum hepcidin concentrations compared to control groups. A nonsignificantly lower serum prohepcidin concentration (0.522 ng/mL, 95% CI: -1.983 to 0.939; p = .484) was found for IBD patients compared to healthy subjects. However, there was significant heterogeneity among the studies regarding both hepcidin (I 2 = 98%, p < .001) and prohepcidin levels (I 2 = 96%, p < .001), respectively. In an age-based subgroup analysis, patients aged ≥18 years with IBD displayed higher serum hepcidin levels when compared to healthy individuals (22.36 ng/mL, 95% CI, 2.12-42.61; p = .030). Hepcidin concentrations are elevated in subjects with IBD; however, the clinical relevance of this finding requires further evaluation in future investigations as the increase is relatively small compared to the wide range of normal hepcidin values.

Research update for ferroptosis and cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is the second most common hepatobiliary malignancy after hepatocellular carcinoma. Due to the poor treatment effect and high mortality rate of CCA, it is of great significance to explore new therapeutic targets. Ferroptosis is a type of cell death caused by iron-dependent cell oxidative injury, which is closely related to the occurrence and development of numerous diseases. Novel ideas for the prevention and treatment of related diseases have been provided by ferroptosis, which has become a focus of research in recent years. This review introduces the underlying mechanisms related to ferroptosis, as well as a research update for ferroptosis in the occurrence and development of CCA. The clinical value of ferroptosis-related regulatory mechanisms in CCA will be elucidated.

Ferroptosis targeting natural compounds as a promising approach for developing potent liver cancer agents

Liver cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. However, treatment options, including surgical resection, transplantation, and molecular drug therapies, are of limited effectiveness. Recent studies have demonstrated that suppressing ferroptosis might be a pivotal signal for liver cancer initiation, thus providing a new way to combat liver cancer. Ferroptosis is a distinct form of controlled cell death that differs from conventional cell death routes like apoptosis, necrosis, and pyroptosis. It results from intracellular iron overload, which raises iron-dependent reactive oxygen species. This, in turn, leads to the accumulation of lipid peroxides that further result in oxidative damage to cell membranes, disrupt normal functioning, and ultimately speed up the ferroptosis phenomenon. Ferroptosis regulation is intricately linked to cellular physiological processes, encompassing iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, and the equilibrium between oxygen-free radical reactions and lipid peroxidation. This review intends to summarize the natural compounds targeting ferroptosis in liver cancer to offer new therapeutic ideas for liver cancer. Furthermore, it serves as the foundation for identifying and applying chemical medicines and natural chemicals that target ferroptosis to treat liver cancer efficiently.

Understanding the unique mechanism of ferroptosis: a promising therapeutic target

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death and is characterized by high concentrations of intracellular lipid peroxide and a redox imbalance in the cells. Ferroptosis shows distinct morphological and biological features compared with other prominent mechanisms of programmed cell death. The distinct characteristics of ferroptosis include the dysfunction of the lipid peroxide repair enzyme glutathione peroxidase 4, the presence of ferrous iron overload, and the lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Several other metabolic pathways (including iron, lipid, and amino acid metabolism) and ferritinophagy, as well as transcription factors, can modulate ferroptosis. However, to date, the molecular mechanism of ferroptosis has not been elucidated. This review outlines the discovery, characterization, regulatory mechanisms, and crosstalk of ferroptosis. Further, we have noted the controversial elements in the ferroptosis-related mechanisms. Our inferences may provide a partial reference for developing strategies to regulate ferroptosis.

Iron accumulation and lipid peroxidation: implication of ferroptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma

Ferroptosis is a type of controlled cell death caused by lipid peroxidation, which results in the rupture of the cell membrane. ferroptosis has been repeatedly demonstrated over the past ten years to be a significant factor in a number of diseases. The liver is a significant iron storage organ, thus ferroptosis will have great potential in the treatment of liver diseases. Ferroptosis is particularly prevalent in HCC. In the opening section of this article, we give a general summary of the pertinent molecular mechanisms, signaling pathways, and associated characteristics of ferroptosis. The primary regulating mechanisms during ferroptosis are then briefly discussed, and we conclude by summarizing the development of a number of novel therapeutic strategies used to treat HCC in recent years. Ferroptosis is a crucial strategy for the treatment of HCC and offers new perspectives on the treatment of liver cancer.

Molecular mechanism and potential therapeutic targets of necroptosis and ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative condition, is defined by neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid plaques, and gradual cognitive decline. Regardless of the advances in understanding AD's pathogenesis and progression, its causes are still contested, and there are currently no efficient therapies for the illness. The post-mortem analyses revealed widespread neuronal loss in multiple brain regions in AD, evidenced by a decrease in neuronal density and correlated with the disease's progression and cognitive deterioration. AD's neurodegeneration is complicated, and different types of neuronal cell death, alone or in combination, play crucial roles in this process. Recently, the involvement of non-apoptotic programmed cell death in the neurodegenerative mechanisms of AD has received a lot of attention. Aberrant activation of necroptosis and ferroptosis, two newly discovered forms of regulated non-apoptotic cell death, is thought to contribute to neuronal cell death in AD. In this review, we first address the main features of necroptosis and ferroptosis, cellular signaling cascades, and the mechanisms involved in AD pathology. Then, we discuss the latest therapies targeting necroptosis and ferroptosis in AD animal/cell models and human research to provide vital information for AD treatment.

The potential role of ferroptosis in COVID-19-related cardiovascular injury

COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), emerged as a global health threat in 2019. An important feature of the disease is that multiorgan symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection persist after recovery. Evidence indicates that people who recovered from COVID-19, even those under the age of 65 years without cardiovascular risk factors such as smoking, obesity, hypertension, and diabetes, had a significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease for up to one year after diagnosis. Therefore, it is important to closely monitor individuals who have recovered from COVID-19 for potential cardiovascular damage that may manifest at a later stage. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of non-apoptotic cell death characterized by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increased lipid peroxide levels. Several studies have demonstrated that ferroptosis plays an important role in cancer, ischemia/reperfusion injury (I/RI), and other cardiovascular diseases. Altered iron metabolism, upregulation of reactive oxygen species, and glutathione peroxidase 4 inactivation are striking features of COVID-19-related cardiovascular injury. SARS-CoV-2 can cause cardiovascular ferroptosis, leading to cardiovascular damage. Understanding the mechanism of ferroptosis in COVID-19-related cardiovascular injuries will contribute to the development of treatment regimens for preventing or reducing COVID-19-related cardiovascular complications. In this article, we go over the pathophysiological underpinnings of SARS-CoV-2-induced acute and chronic cardiovascular injury, the function of ferroptosis, and prospective treatment approaches.

Attenuation of ferroptosis as a potential therapeutic target for neuropsychiatric manifestations of post-COVID syndrome

Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is associated with the persistence of pre-existing or the emergence of new neurological and psychiatric manifestations as a part of a multi-system affection known collectively as "post-COVID syndrome." Cognitive decline is the most prominent feature among these manifestations. The underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain under intense investigation. Ferroptosis is a form of cell death that results from the excessive accumulation of intracellular reactive iron, which mediates lipid peroxidation. The accumulation of lipid-based reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the impairment of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) activity trigger ferroptosis. The COVID-19-associated cytokine storm enhances the levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines and causes immune-cell hyper-activation that is tightly linked to iron dysregulation. Severe COVID-19 presents with iron overload as one of the main features of its pathogenesis. Iron overload promotes a state of inflammation and immune dysfunction. This is well demonstrated by the strong association between COVID-19 severity and high levels of ferritin, which is a well-known inflammatory and iron overload biomarker. The dysregulation of iron, the high levels of lipid peroxidation biomarkers, and the inactivation of GPX4 in COVID-19 patients make a strong case for ferroptosis as a potential mechanism behind post-COVID neuropsychiatric deficits. Therefore, here we review the characteristics of iron and the attenuation of ferroptosis as a potential therapeutic target for neuropsychiatric post-COVID syndrome.

Antioxidant and Immune-Related Implications of Minerals in COVID-19: A Possibility for Disease Prevention and Management

Since the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic appeared, both governments and the scientific community have focused their efforts on the search for prophylactic and therapeutic alternatives in order to reduce its effects. Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have been approved and administered, playing a key role in the overcoming of this situation. However, they have not reached the whole world population, and several doses will be needed in the future in order to successfully protect individuals. The disease is still here, so other strategies should be explored with the aim of supporting the immune system before and during the infection. An adequate diet is certainly associated with an optimal inflammatory and oxidative stress status, as poor levels of different nutrients could be related to altered immune responses and, consequently, an augmented susceptibility to infections and severe outcomes derived from them. Minerals exert a wide range of immune-modulatory, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities, which may be useful for fighting this illness. Although they cannot be considered as a definitive therapeutic solution, the available evidence to date, obtained from studies on similar respiratory diseases, might reflect the rationality of deeper investigations of the use of minerals during this pandemic.

The Interplay between Intracellular Iron Homeostasis and Neuroinflammation in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Iron is essential for life. Many enzymes require iron for appropriate function. However, dysregulation of intracellular iron homeostasis produces excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) via the Fenton reaction and causes devastating effects on cells, leading to ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death. In order to protect against harmful effects, the intracellular system regulates cellular iron levels through iron regulatory mechanisms, including hepcidin-ferroportin, divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1)-transferrin, and ferritin-nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4). During iron deficiency, DMT1-transferrin and ferritin-NCOA4 systems increase intracellular iron levels via endosomes and ferritinophagy, respectively. In contrast, repleting extracellular iron promotes cellular iron absorption through the hepcidin-ferroportin axis. These processes are regulated by the iron-regulatory protein (IRP)/iron-responsive element (IRE) system and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Meanwhile, excessive ROS also promotes neuroinflammation by activating the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). NF-κB forms inflammasomes, inhibits silent information regulator 2-related enzyme 1 (SIRT1), and induces pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β). Furthermore, 4-hydroxy-2,3-trans-nonenal (4-HNE), the end-product of ferroptosis, promotes the inflammatory response by producing amyloid-beta (Aβ) fibrils and neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease, and alpha-synuclein aggregation in Parkinson's disease. This interplay shows that intracellular iron homeostasis is vital to maintain inflammatory homeostasis. Here, we review the role of iron homeostasis in inflammation based on recent findings.

Dissecting the potential role of ferroptosis in liver diseases: an updated review

Ferroptosis is a novel form of cell death, manifested by iron-dependent, non-apoptotic manner resulting from the intracellular accumulation of large clusters of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxides due to abnormal iron metabolism. Since the liver is the main organ of human body for storing iron, it is essential to perform in-depth investigation on the role and mechanistic basis of ferroptosis in the context of divergent liver diseases. We previously summarized the emerging role of ferroptosis among various liver diseases, however, the past few years have been a surge in research establishing ferroptosis as the molecular basis or treatment option. This review article concentrated on the accumulating research progress of ferroptosis in a range of liver diseases such as acute liver injury/failure (ALI/ALF), immune-mediated hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease (ALD), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and liver fibrosis. Ferroptosis may be a promising target for the prevention and treatment of various liver diseases, providing a strategy for exploring new therapeutic avenues for these entities.

Enlightening the mechanism of ferroptosis in epileptic heart

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological degenerative disease with a high incidence, affecting all age groups. Refractory Epilepsy (RE) occurs in approximately 30-40% of cases with a higher risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Recent studies have shown that spontaneous seizures developed in epilepsy can be related to an increase in oxidative stress and reactive oxygen derivatives (ROS) production. Increasing ROS concentration causes lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, destruction of nuclear genetic material, enzyme inhibition, and cell death by a mechanism known as "ferroptosis" (Fts). Inactivation of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) induces Fts, while oxidative stress is linked with increased intracellular free iron (Fe+2) concentration. Fts is also a non-apoptotic programmed cell death mechanism, where a hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-141) dependent hypoxic stress-like condition appears to occur with accumulation of iron and cytotoxic ROS in affected cells. Assuming convulsive crises as hypoxic stress, repetitive convulsive/hypoxic stress can be an effective inducer of the "epileptic heart" (EH), which is characterized by altered autonomic function and a high risk of malignant or fatal bradycardia. We previously reported that experimental recurrent seizures induce cardiomyocyte Fts associated with SUDEP. Furthermore, several genes related to Fts and hypoxia have recently been identified in acute myocardial infarction. An emerging theme from recent studies indicates that inhibition of GPX4 through modulating expression or activities of the xCT antiporter system (SLC7A11) governs cell sensitivity to oxidative stress from ferroptosis. Furthermore, during hypoxia, an increased expression of stress transcriptional factor ATF3 can promote Fts induced by erastin in a HIF-141-dependent manner. We propose that inhibition of Fts with ROS scavengers, iron chelators, antioxidants, and transaminase inhibitors could provide a therapeutic effect in epilepsy and improve the prognosis of SUDEP risk by protecting the heart from ferroptosis.

Iron as a therapeutic target in chronic liver disease

It was clearly realized more than 50 years ago that iron deposition in the liver may be a critical factor in the development and progression of liver disease. The recent clarification of ferroptosis as a specific form of regulated hepatocyte death different from apoptosis and the description of ferritinophagy as a specific variation of autophagy prompted detailed investigations on the association of iron and the liver. In this review, we will present a brief discussion of iron absorption and handling by the liver with emphasis on the role of liver macrophages and the significance of the iron regulators hepcidin, transferrin, and ferritin in iron homeostasis. The regulation of ferroptosis by endogenous and exogenous mod-ulators will be examined. Furthermore, the involvement of iron and ferroptosis in various liver diseases including alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver disease, chronic hepatitis B and C, liver fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) will be analyzed. Finally, experimental and clinical results following interventions to reduce iron deposition and the promising manipulation of ferroptosis will be presented. Most liver diseases will be benefited by ferroptosis inhibition using exogenous inhibitors with the notable exception of HCC, where induction of ferroptosis is the desired effect. Current evidence mostly stems from in vitro and in vivo experimental studies and the need for well-designed future clinical trials is warranted.

Liver injury in COVID-19: Holds ferritinophagy-mediated ferroptosis accountable

Even in patients without a history of liver disease, liver injury caused by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is gradually becoming more common. However, the precise pathophysiological mechanisms behind COVID-19's liver pathogenicity are still not fully understood. We hypothesize that inflammation may become worse by cytokine storms caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Elevated ferritin levels can initiate ferritinophagy mediated by nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4), which leads to iron elevation, and ferroptosis. In COVID-19 patients, ferroptosis can be restricted to reduce disease severity and liver damage by targeting NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy. To confirm the role of ferritinophagy-mediated ferroptosis in SARS-CoV-2 infection, further research is required.

Iron Metabolism and Ferroptosis in Peripheral Nerve Injury

Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is a major clinical problem that may lead to different levels of sensory and motor dysfunction including paralysis. Due to the high disability rate and unsatisfactory prognosis, the exploration and revealment of the mechanisms involved in the PNI are urgently required. Ferroptosis, a recently identified novel form of cell death, is an iron-dependent process. It is a unique modality of cell death, closely associated with iron concentrations, generation of reactive oxygen species, and accumulation of the lipid reactive oxygen species. These processes are regulated by multiple cellular metabolic pathways, including iron overloading, lipid peroxidation, and the glutathione/glutathione peroxidase 4 pathway. Furthermore, ferroptosis is accompanied by morphological changes in the mitochondria, such as increased membrane density and shrunken mitochondria; this association between ferroptosis and mitochondrial damage has been detected in various diseases, including spinal cord injury and PNI. The inhibition of ferroptosis can promote the repair of damaged peripheral nerves, reduce mitochondrial damage, and promote the recovery of neurological function. In this review, we intend to discuss the detailed mechanisms of ferroptosis and summarize the current researches on ferroptosis with respect to nerve injury. This review also aims at providing new insights on targeting ferroptosis for PNI treatment.

Lycopene: a therapeutic strategy against coronavirus disease 19 (COVID- 19)

Lycopene is a group of phytochemicals found in nature, primarily in fruits and vegetables. Lycopene is thought to protect against a variety of diseases attributed to its antioxidant capabilities. Lycopene has anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and immunity-boosting qualities, among other biological and pharmacological benefits. COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has recently emerged as one of the world's leading causes of death. Patients may be asymptomatic or show signs of respiratory, cytokine release syndrome, gastrointestinal, or even multiple organ failure, all of which can lead to death. In COVID-19, inflammation, and cytokine storm are the key pathogenic mechanisms, according to SARS-CoV-2 infection symptoms. ARDS develops in some vulnerable hosts, which is accompanied by an inflammatory "cytokine syndrome" that causes lung damage. Immunological and inflammatory markers were linked to disease severity in mild and severe COVID-19 cases, implying that inflammatory markers, including IL-6, CRP, ESR, and PCT were significantly linked with COVID-19 severity. Patients with severe illness have reduced levels of several immune subsets, including CD4 + T, NK, and CD8 + cells. As a result, lycopene can be commended for bolstering physiological defenses against COVID-19 infections.

Mucormycosis an added burden to Covid-19 Patients: An in-depth systematic review

As of 25th July, 2022, global Disease burden of 575,430,244 confirmed cases and over 6,403,511 deaths have been attributed to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Co-infections/secondary infections continue to plague patients around the world as result of the co-morbidities like diabetes mellitus, biochemical changes caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) especially significant elevation in free iron levels, immune suppression caused by SARS-CoV-2, and indiscriminate use of systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of severe COVID-19 disease. In such circumstances, opportunistic fungal infections pose significant challenge for COVID-19 disease therapy in patients with other co-morbidities. Although COVID-19-associated Mucormycosis (CAM) has been widely recognized, currently extensive research is being conducted on mucormycosis. It has been widely agreed that patients undergoing corticosteroid therapy are highly susceptible for CAM, henceforth high index of screening and intensive care and management is need of an hour in order to have favorable outcomes in these patients. Diagnosis in such cases is often delayed and eventually the disease progresses quickly which poses added burden to clinician and increases patient load in critical care units of hospitals. A vast perusal of literature indicated that patients with diabetes mellitus and those with other co-morbidities might be highly vulnerable to develop mucormycosis. In the present work, the case series of three patients presented at Chest Disease Hospital Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir infected with CAM has been described with their epidemiological data in supplementary section. All these cases were found to be affected with co-morbidity of Diabetes Mellitus (DM) and were under corticosteroid therapy. Furthermore, given the significant death rate linked with mucormycosis and the growing understanding of the diseases significance, systematic review of the literature on CAM has been discussed and we have attempted to discuss emerging CAM and related aspects of the disease.

Attenuation by Time-Restricted Feeding of High-Fat and High-Fructose Diet-Induced NASH in Mice Is Related to Per2 and Ferroptosis

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a chronic and progressive disease whose treatment strategies are limited. Although time-restricted feeding (TRF) is beneficial for metabolic diseases without influencing caloric intake, the underlying mechanisms of TRF action in NASH and its efficacy have not yet been demonstrated. We herein showed that TRF effectively alleviated NASH, producing a reduction in liver enzymes and improvements in liver pathology. Regarding the mechanisms by which TRF mitigates NASH, we ascertained that TRF inhibited ferroptosis and the expression of the circadian gene Per2. By adopting a hepatocyte-specific Per2-knockout (Per2^△hep) mice model, we clarified the critical role of Per2 in exacerbating NASH. According to the results of our RNA-Seq analysis, the knockout of Per2 ameliorated NASH by inhibiting the onset of ferroptosis; this was manifested by diminished lipid peroxidation levels, decreased mRNA and protein levels for ferroptosis-related genes, and alleviated morphologic changes in mitochondria. Furthermore, using a ferroptosis inhibitor, we showed that ferroptosis significantly aggravated NASH and noted that this was likely achieved by regulation of the expression of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR)α. Finally, we discerned that TRF and hepatocyte-specific knockout of Per2 promoted the expression of PPARα. Our results revealed a potential for TRF to effectively alleviate high-fat and high-fructose diet-induced NASH via the inhibition of Per2 and depicted the participation of Per2 in the progression of NASH by promoting ferroptosis, which was ultimately related to the expression of PPARα.

The role of iron and ferritin in pathophysiology and as a laboratory marker in COVID-19

SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) emerged in China exponentially and is recognized as a multisystem disease that gradually elevates markers associated with iron metabolism as the infection becomes more intense, becoming a critical factor in the investigation of prognosis. We review the latest scientific findings on the behavior of iron and ferritin in pathophysiology and as laboratory markers in COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019).The findings showed that iron and ferritin play a key role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19, contributing to the worsening of the disease. Therefore, iron dysmetabolism, marked by hyperferritinemia, is associated with inflammatory states in SARS-CoV-2 infection, and ferritin measurement has been shown to be a useful laboratory marker with a clinical and discriminatory potential to define the severity and mortality during COVID-19.

Regulated necrosis in COVID-19: A double-edged sword

COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 can cause various systemic diseases such as acute pneumonia with cytokine storm. Constituted of necroptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis, regulated necrosis constitutes the cell death patterns under the low apoptosis condition commonly observed in COVID-19. Regulated necrosis is involved in the release of cytokines like TNF-α, IL-1 β, and IL-6 and cell contents such as alarmins, PAMPs, and DAMPs, leading to more severe inflammation. Uncontrolled regulated necrosis may explain the poor prognosis and cytokine storm observed in COVID-19. In this review, the pathophysiology and mechanism of regulated necrosis with the double-edged sword effect in COVID-19 are thoroughly discussed in detail. Furthermore, this review also focuses on the biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets of the regulated necrosis pathway in COVID-19, providing practical guidance to judge the severity, prognosis, and clinical treatment of COVID-19 and guiding the development of clinical anti-SARS-CoV-2 drugs.

Circulating Cell-Free DNA Level in Prediction of COVID-19 Severity and Mortality: Correlation of with Haematology and Serum Biochemical Parameters

Lymphocyte dysregulation in coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) is a major contributing factor linked to disease severity and mortality. Apoptosis results in the accumulation of cell-free DNA (cfDNA) in circulation. COVID-19 has a heterogeneous clinical course. The role of cfDNA levels was studied to assess the severity and outcome of COVID-19 patients and correlated with other laboratory parameters. The current case series included 100 patients with mild COVID-19 (MCOV-19) and 106 patients with severe COVID-19 (SCOV-19). Plasma cfDNA levels were quantified using SYBR green quantitative real-time PCR through amplification of the β-actin gene. CfDNA level was significantly higher in SCOV-19 at 706.7 ng/ml (522.6–1258) as compared to MCOV-19 at 219.8 ng/ml (167.7–299.6). The cfDNA levels were significantly higher in non-survivor than in survivors (p = 0.0001). CfDNA showed a significant correlation with NLR, ferritin, LDH, procalcitonin, and IL-6. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of cfDNA in the discrimination of SCOV-19 from MCOV-19 were 90.57% & 80%, respectively. CfDNA showed a sensitivity of 94.74% in the differentiation of non-survivors from survivors. CfDNA levels showed a significant positive correlation with other laboratory and inflammatory markers of COVID-19. CfDNA levels, NLR, and other parameters may be used to stratify and monitor COVID-19 patients and predict mortality. CfDNA may be used to predict COVID-19 severity with higher diagnostic sensitivity.

The potential interplay between G-quadruplex and p53: their roles in regulation of ferroptosis in cancer

Ferroptosis is a novel form of regulated cell death trigged by various biological processes, and p53 is involved in different ferroptosis regulations and functions as a crucial regulator. Both DNA and RNA can fold into G-quadruplex in GC-rich regions and increasing shreds of evidence demonstrate that G-quadruplexes have been associated with some important cellular events. Investigation of G-quadruplexes is thus vital to revealing their biological functions. Specific G-quadruplexes are investigated to discover new effective anticancer drugs. Multiple modulations have been discovered between the secondary structure G-quadruplex and p53, probably further influencing the ferroptosis in cancer. G-quadruplex binds to ferric iron-related structures directly and may affect the p53 pathways as well as ferroptosis in cancer. In addition, G-quadruplex also interacts with p53 indirectly, including iron-sulfur cluster metabolism, telomere homeostasis, lipid peroxidation, and glycolysis. In this review, we summarized the latent interplay between G-quadruplex and p53 which focused mainly on ferroptosis in cancer to provide the potential understanding and encourage future studies.

Fabrication of a donkey spleen ferritin-pectin complex to reduce iron release and enhance the iron supplementation efficacy

Iron deficiency is a global issue, influencing more than one-third of the population in the world. Ferritin as a natural iron-containing protein is considered a marvelous iron supplement due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability and bioavailability. However, foodstuffs contain plenty of reductants which could induce iron release from the cavity of ferritin and cause oxidative damage. In this study, we aimed to prevent the iron release from donkey spleen ferritin (DSF) by pectin encapsulation driven by the electrostatic interaction and evaluated the iron supplementation of the DSF-pectin complex (DPC). After DSF was purified, we fabricated the DPC and the iron release was decreased by 53.68% after 60 min when DSF : pectin was 1 : 10 (w/w). TEM analysis showed that ferritin in the DPC is clustered in a linear pattern, and the cell viability assay indicated that the DPC has no toxicity towards Caco-2 cells. In the mouse experiment, the DPC increased the content of serum iron and serum ferritin with no significant difference from the control check. Furthermore, the DPC increased the iron content in the liver, suppressed the expression of hepcidin and increased the expression of ferroportin. These results suggested that the DPC could prevent the interactions between food components and ferritin and is a promising iron supplement to ameliorate iron deficiency.

Emerging Roles of the Iron Chelators in Inflammation

Iron is a crucial element for mammalian cells, considering its intervention in several physiologic processes. Its homeostasis is finely regulated, and its alteration could be responsible for the onset of several disorders. Iron is closely related to inflammation; indeed, during inflammation high levels of interleukin-6 cause an increased production of hepcidin which induces a degradation of ferroportin. Ferroportin degradation leads to decreased iron efflux that culminates in elevated intracellular iron concentration and consequently iron toxicity in cells and tissues. Therefore, iron chelation could be considered a novel and useful therapeutic strategy in order to counteract the inflammation in several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Several iron chelators are already known to have anti-inflammatory effects, among them deferiprone, deferoxamine, deferasirox, and Dp44mT are noteworthy. Recently, eltrombopag has been reported to have an important role in reducing inflammation, acting both directly by chelating iron, and indirectly by modulating iron efflux. This review offers an overview of the possible novel biological effects of the iron chelators in inflammation, suggesting them as novel anti-inflammatory molecules.

The beneficial role of Hepcidin peptide inhibitor in improved the symptoms of COVID-19 in diabetics: anti-inflammatory and potential therapeutic effects

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a recent public health issue worldwide. Also, diabetes is a frequent condition with high mortality. There is a strong relationship between COVID-19 and diabetes. This article analyses the intricate relationship between COVID-19 and hepcidin. Hepcidin increases in aged non-insulin diabetic patients. Hepcidin is the last target treatment of several medications commonly used. Viral diseases, especially SARS-CoV19, can activate the hepcidin pathway leading to an elevation in the iron load. This increased iron is released into the bloodstream and results in cell death through ferroptosis, like free iron. Excess iron has pro-coagulative and toxic effects. Hepcidin overexpression and iron overload are associated with COVID-19 infection and can be considered potential targets for treatment. Several studies have shown dalteparin (anti-Hepcidin) could improve the symptoms of COVID-19 in diabetics by appropriately modulating and decreasing oxidative stress and inflammation. This finding can be leading to enhancing the existing knowledge about Therapeutic measures for reducing Covid-19 impairments in diabetics and is suggested as a possible therapeutic agent in diabetes.

Differential Pharmacokinetics of Liver Tropism for Iron Sucrose, Ferric Carboxymaltose, and Iron Isomaltoside: A Clue to Their Safety for Dialysis Patients

Anemia is a major complication of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents and intravenous (IV) iron are the current backbone of anemia treatment in ESKD. Iron overload induced by IV iron is a potential clinical problem in dialysis patients. We compared the pharmacokinetics of liver accumulation of iron sucrose, currently used worldwide, with two third-generation IV irons (ferric carboxymaltose and iron isomaltoside). We hypothesized that better pharmacokinetics of newer irons could improve the safety of anemia management in ESKD. Liver iron concentration (LIC) was analyzed in 54 dialysis patients by magnetic resonance imaging under different modalities of iron therapy. LIC increased significantly in patients treated with 1.2 g or 2.4 g IV iron sucrose (p < 0.001, Wilcoxon test), whereas no significant increase was observed in patients treated with ferric carboxymaltose or iron isomaltoside (p > 0.05, Wilcoxon-test). Absolute differences in LIC reached 25 μmol/g in the 1.2 g iron sucrose group compared with only 5 μmol/g in the 1 g ferric carboxymaltose and 1 g iron isomaltoside groups (p < 0.0001, Kruskal−Wallis test). These results suggest the beneficial consequences of using ferric carboxymaltose or iron isomaltoside on liver structure in ESKD due to their pharmacokinetic ability to minimize iron overload.

Ferroptosis in Chronic Liver Diseases: Opportunities and Challenges

Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent non-apoptotic cell death characterized by lipid peroxidation, is a cell death pathway discovered in recent years. Ferroptosis plays an important role in tumors, ischemia-reperfusion injury, neurological diseases, blood diseases, etc. Recent studies have shown the importance of ferroptosis in chronic liver disease. This article summarizes the pathological mechanisms of ferroptosis involved in System Xc-, iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, and some GPX4-independent pathways, and the latest research on ferroptosis in chronic liver diseases such as alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, liver fibrosis, hepatocellular carcinoma. In addition, the current bottleneck issues that restrict the research on ferroptosis are proposed to provide ideas and strategies for exploring new therapeutic targets for chronic liver diseases.

The Relationship Between Hepcidin-Mediated Iron Dysmetabolism and COVID-19 Severity: A Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUNDS

Hepcidin has been identified as a systemic iron-regulatory hormone. Recent studies have suggested that iron metabolism disorders may be involved in the pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiple organ dysfunction in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

OBJECTIVES

To re-evaluate the hepcidin-related iron metabolism parameters and explore the relationship between hepcidin-mediated iron dysmetabolism and COVID-19 severity.

METHODS

COVID-19 is classified as mild and moderate as non-severe, severe and critical as severe. A meta-analysis was conducted. Four bibliographic databases were comprehensively searched up to December 31st 2021.

RESULTS

Six unique studies with data from 477 COVID-19 patients were included. Compared to non-severe cases, severe cases had higher hepcidin (standardized mean difference (SMD), -0.39; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) [-0.76, -0.03]; P = 0.03) and ferritin (SMD, -0.84; 95% CI [-1.30, -0.38]; P = 0.0004). In five out of six studies, a total of 427 patients were tested for serum iron, and there were significant differences in their levels between severe and non-severe cases (SMD, 0.22; 95% CI [0.02, 0.41]; P = 0.03). A total of 320 patients from four out of six studies were tested for transferrin saturation, and the statistical difference was not significant (SMD, 0.06; 95% CI [-0.17, 0.28]; P = 0.64).

CONCLUSION

Severe COVID-19 cases had higher serum levels of hepcidin and ferritin, and lower serum iron, without significant differences in transferrin saturation. Further studies are needed to verify whether targeting the hepcidin-mediated iron metabolism axis may influence the outcome and treatment of COVID-19.

COVID-19-Related Brain Injury: The Potential Role of Ferroptosis

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused devastating loss of life and a healthcare crisis worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 is the causative pathogen of COVID-19 and is transmitted mainly through the respiratory tract, where the virus infects host cells by binding to the ACE2 receptor. SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with acute pneumonia, but neuropsychiatric symptoms and different brain injuries are also present. The possible routes by which SARS-CoV-2 invades the brain are unclear, as are the mechanisms underlying brain injuries with the resultant neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with COVID-19. Ferroptosis is a unique iron-dependent form of non-apoptotic cell death, characterized by lipid peroxidation with high levels of glutathione consumption. Ferroptosis plays a primary role in various acute and chronic brain diseases, but to date, ferroptosis in COVID-19-related brain injuries has not been explored. This review discusses the mechanisms of ferroptosis and recent evidence suggesting a potential pathogenic role for ferroptosis in COVID-19-related brain injury. Furthermore, the possible routes through which SARS-CoV-2 could invade the brain are also discussed. Discoveries in these areas will open possibilities for treatment strategies to prevent or reduce brain-related complications of COVID-19.

Specific changes of erythroid regulators and hepcidin in patients infected by SARS-COV-2

Iron metabolism is tightly linked to infectious and inflammatory signals through hepcidin synthesis. To date, iron homeostasis during SARS-CoV-2 infection has not yet been described. The aim of this study is to characterize the hepcidin and erythroid regulators (growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) and erythroferrone (ERFE)) by measuring concentrations in plasma in context of COVID-19 disease.We performed a single-center observational study of patients with COVID-19 to evaluate concentrations of main regulatory proteins involved in iron homeostasis, namely: hepcidin, ERFE and GDF-15. SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19+) was defined by a positive RT-PCR. Sixteen patients with COVID-19+ were gender-matched and age-matched to 16 patients with a sepsis unrelated to SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19-) and were compared with non-parametric statistic test.Clinical and hematological parameters, plasma iron, transferrin, transferrin saturation, ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor and C reactive protein were not statistically different between both groups. Median plasma hepcidin concentrations were higher in the COVID-19+ group (44.1 (IQR 16.55-70.48) vs 14.2 (IQR 5.95-18.98) nmol/L, p=0.003), while median ERFE and GDF-15 concentrations were lower in the COVID-19+ group (0.16 (IQR 0.01-0.73) vs 0.89 (IQR 0.19-3.82) ng/mL, p=0.035; 2003 (IQR 1355-2447) vs 4713 (IQR 2082-7774) pg/mL, p=0015), respectively) compared with the COVID-19- group.This is the first study reporting lower ERFE and GDF-15 median concentrations in patients with COVID-19+ compared with patients with COVID-19-, associated with an increased median concentration of hepcidin in the COVID-19+ group compared with COVID19- group.

A Bioinformatics-Assisted Review on Iron Metabolism and Immune System to Identify Potential Biomarkers of Exercise Stress-Induced Immunosuppression

The immune function is closely related to iron (Fe) homeostasis and allostasis. The aim of this bioinformatics-assisted review was twofold; (i) to update the current knowledge of Fe metabolism and its relationship to the immune system, and (ii) to perform a prediction analysis of regulatory network hubs that might serve as potential biomarkers during stress-induced immunosuppression. Several literature and bioinformatics databases/repositories were utilized to review Fe metabolism and complement the molecular description of prioritized proteins. The Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING) was used to build a protein-protein interactions network for subsequent network topology analysis. Importantly, Fe is a sensitive double-edged sword where two extremes of its nutritional status may have harmful effects on innate and adaptive immunity. We identified clearly connected important hubs that belong to two clusters: (i) presentation of peptide antigens to the immune system with the involvement of redox reactions of Fe, heme, and Fe trafficking/transport; and (ii) ubiquitination, endocytosis, and degradation processes of proteins related to Fe metabolism in immune cells (e.g., macrophages). The identified potential biomarkers were in agreement with the current experimental evidence, are included in several immunological/biomarkers databases, and/or are emerging genetic markers for different stressful conditions. Although further validation is warranted, this hybrid method (human-machine collaboration) to extract meaningful biological applications using available data in literature and bioinformatics tools should be highlighted.

Low transferrin levels predict heightened inflammation in patients with COVID-19: New insights

OBJECTIVES

Mounting evidence links hyperinflammation in gravely ill patients to low serum iron levels and hyperferritinemia. However, little attention has been paid to other iron-associated markers such as transferrin. The aim of this study was to investigate the association of different iron parameters in severe COVID-19 and their relation to disease severity.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

This study involved 73 hospitalized patients with positive test results for SARS-CoV-2. Patients were classified into two groups according to symptom severity: mild and severe. Blood levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, interleukin 6 (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), and iron-related biomarkers were measured.

RESULTS

The results revealed a significant increase in IL-6, CRP, and ferritin levels and decreased transferrin and iron levels in severe COVID-19. Transferrin negatively predicted variations in IgM and IgG levels (P < 0.001), as well as 34.4% and 36.6% increase in IL-6 and CRP levels, respectively (P < 0.005). Importantly, transferrin was the main negative predictor of ferritin levels, determining 22.7% of serum variations (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Reduced serum transferrin and iron levels, along with the increased CRP and high ferritin, were strongly associated with the heightened inflammatory and immune state in COVID-19. Transferrin can be used as a valuable predictor of increased severity and progression of the disease.

Mucormycosis (black fungus) ensuing COVID-19 and comorbidity meets - Magnifying global pandemic grieve and catastrophe begins

Post COVID-19, mucormycosis occurred after the SARS-CoV-2 has rampaged the human population and is a scorching problem among the pandemic globally, particularly among Asian countries. Invasive mucormycosis has been extensively reported from mild to severe COVID-19 survivors. The robust predisposing factor seems to be uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, comorbidity and immunosuppression acquired through steroid therapy. The prime susceptive reason for the increase of mucormycosis cases is elevated iron levels in the serum of the COVID survivors. A panoramic understanding of the infection has been elucidated based on clinical manifestation, genetic and non- genetic mechanisms of steroid drug administration, biochemical pathways and immune modulated receptor associations. This review lime-lights and addresses the "What", "Why", "How" and "When" about the COVID-19 associated mucormycosis (CAM) in a comprehensive manner with a pure intention to bring about awareness to the common public as the cases are inevitably and exponentially increasing in India and global countries as well. The article also unearthed the pathogenesis of mucormycosis and its association with the COVID-19 sequela, the plausible routes of entry, diagnosis and counter remedies to keep the infection at bay. Cohorts of case reports were analysed to spotlight the link between the pandemic COVID-19 and the nightmare-mucormycosis.

NCOA4-Mediated Ferritinophagy: A Vicious Culprit in COVID-19 Pathogenesis?

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic that has caused widespread loss of life. Notably, in this disease, severe inflammatory reactions characterized by cytokine storms are caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. The cytokine storms may promote hyper-ferritinemia which can further intensify the inflammation. Moreover, elevated ferritin levels trigger nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4)-mediated ferritinophagy, in which ferritin is degraded and iron is released. Excess iron released from ferritinophagy can promote ferroptosis and cellular damage. Therefore, we propose that NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy can be targeted to limit the ferroptosis and prevent the multi-organ damage and severity in COVID-19 patients.

Dysfunction of aged liver of male albino rats and the effect of intermitted fasting; Biochemical, histological, and immunohistochemical study

Intermittent fasting exerts beneficial effects on most age-related degenerative changes throughout the body. This study aimed to investigate the possible protective effects and mechanism of intermittent fasting on aged liver in male albino rats. Forty male albino rats were used in this study and were divided into four equal groups; Group I served as control ; rats aged 1 month sacrfied when they reached age of 4 month. Group II; rats aged 1 month with intermittent fasting for 3 months. The rats sacrfied when they reached age of 4 mounth Group III; rats aged 15-month fed an ad-libitum diet. The rats sacrified when they reached age of 18 month. Group IV; 15 month rats with intermittent fasting for 3 months. The rats sacrified when they reached age of 18 month. Liver specimens were excised and processed for biochemical, histological, and immunohistochemical study. Blood samples were collected for biochemical study. The result showed a significant increase in liver injury, oxidative stress, and inflammatory markers with a marked decrease in the autophagy marker in group III if compared with both group I and II. Additionally, group III showed hepatic vacuolations, cellular filtration, and congestion in both central and portal veins. A highly significant increase in the mean color intensity of positive immunochemical reaction for anti caspase 3 and anti-TNFα as well as a highly significant increase in the surface area fraction of collagen fibers were noticed in group III if compared with group I and II. Interestingly, intermittent fasting (group IV) remarkably reduced the previous alternation that that occurred in group III. It could be concluded that various biochemical, histological, and immunohistochemical alterations were observed in liver rat in group III. Beneficial effects of fasting on these changes were recorded in group IV through its anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic effect as well as its effect in modulating autophagy in aged liver cells. This might open the gate for further research and provide a new line for therapeutic intervention in aged liver. These data lead to speculate that sporadic fasting might represent a simple, safe, and inexpensive means to fight the changes occurred in the aged liver.

Klotho ameliorated cognitive deficits in a temporal lobe epilepsy rat model by inhibiting ferroptosis

Cognitive deficits are among the most common comorbidities of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Ferroptosis associated with the accumulation of iron overload-dependent lipid peroxidation produces significant cognitive deficits in TLE. The anti-aging protein, klotho, has been shown to exert neuroprotective effects while enhancing cognition in neurodegenerative disorders. However, the role of klotho in TLE progression has not been established. In this study, we evaluated the effects and underlying mechanisms of klotho in a rat model of TLE induced by lithium-chloride and pilocarpine (LiCl-Pilo). The expression of klotho was found to be inhibited in the hippocampus following LiCl-Pilo induced TLE in rats. An adeno-virus (AAV), which mediated klotho overexpression (AAV-KL) was injected into the bilateral hippocampus of the rat models. After 3 weeks, rats were treated through intraperitoneal injections of LiCl-Pilo. After 9 weeks, AAV-KL was found to have significantly induced klotho overexpression in the hippocampus, effectively ameliorated cognitive deficits and exerted neuroprotective effects in LiCl-Pilo induced TLE rat models. Klotho significantly prevented ferroptosis and iron overload. Meanwhile, klotho regulated the expressions of divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT 1) and ferroportin (FPN) that were associated with iron accumulation in the hippocampus. Furthermore, klotho significantly elevated glutathione peroxidase-4 (GPX-4) and glutathione (GSH) levels while suppressed reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. In conclusion, klotho ameliorated cognitive deficits and exerted neuroprotective effects by inhibiting ferroptosis in LiCl-Pilo induced TLE rat models.

Targeting Ferroptosis: Pathological Mechanism and Treatment of Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathological process that occurs in many organs and diseases. Reperfusion, recovery of blood flow, and reoxygenation often lead to reperfusion injury. Drug therapy and early reperfusion therapy can reduce tissue injury and cell necrosis caused by ischemia, leading to irreversible I/R injury. Ferroptosis was clearly defined in 2012 as a newly discovered iron-dependent, peroxide-driven, nonapoptotic form of regulated cell death. Ferroptosis is considered the cause of reperfusion injury. This discovery provides new avenues for the recognition and treatment of diseases. Ferroptosis is a key factor that leads to I/R injury and organ failure. Given the important role of ferroptosis in I/R injury, there is considerable interest in the potential role of ferroptosis as a targeted treatment for a wide range of I/R injury-related diseases. Recently, substantial progress has been made in applying ferroptosis to I/R injury in various organs and diseases. The development of ferroptosis regulators is expected to provide new opportunities for the treatment of I/R injury. Herein, we analytically review the pathological mechanism and targeted treatment of ferroptosis in I/R and related diseases from the perspectives of myocardial I/R injury, cerebral I/R injury, and ischemic renal injury.

Importance of Hepcidin in the Etiopathogenesis of Anemia in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Anemia is the most common extraintestinal systemic complication of inflammatory bowel disease. Iron deficiency anemia and anemia of chronic disease are among the most frequent types. Intestinal iron absorption is controlled by the activity of ferroportin. Cells with high expression of ferroportin include enterocytes, and also macrophages and hepatocytes. Iron homeostasis is controlled by the hepcidin-ferroportin axis. Hepcidin is a central regulator of iron metabolism and can also serve as a marker of systemic inflammation. During systemic inflammatory response, the synthesis of hepcidin increases, and hepcidin binds to ferroportin and inhibits its activity. Thus, iron is not absorbed from the bowel into the circulation and also remains sequestered in macrophages. Conversely, hepcidin synthesis is suppressed during conditions requiring increased iron intake for enhanced erythropoiesis, such as iron deficiency anemia or hypoxia. Here, ferroportin is not blocked, and iron is actively absorbed into the bloodstream and also released from the stores. Production of hepcidin is influenced by the status of total body iron stores, systemic inflammatory activity and erythropoietic activity. Oral iron therapy is limited in inflammatory bowel diseases due to ongoing gastrointestinal inflammation. It is less effective and may worsen the underlying disease. Therefore, the choice between oral and parenteral iron therapy must be made with caution. Oral iron would be ineffective at high hepcidin levels due to concurrent ferroportin blockage. Contrarily, low levels of hepcidin indicate that oral iron therapy should be successful. An understanding of hepcidin can help in understanding the body's reaction to iron depletion during the inflammatory process.

Targetting ferroptosis for blood cell-related diseases

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent cell death pathway and participates in various diseases. Current evidence suggests that ferroptosis can obviously affect the function of blood cells. This paper aims to elaborate the role of ferroptosis in blood cells and related diseases. First, abnormal ferroptosis damages the developing red blood cells by breaking systemic iron homeostasis, leading to erythropoiesis suppression and anaemia. Ferroptosis mediates neutrophils recruitment and neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis). In T-cells, ferroptosis induces a novel point of synergy between immunotherapy and radiotherapy. Additionally, ferroptosis may mediate B cells differentiation, antibody responses and lymphoma. Nevertheless, increased ferroptosis can ameliorate acute myeloid leukaemia and T-cell leukaemia/lymphoma by inducing iron-dependent cancer cells death. Besides, ferroptosis activates platelets by increasing P-selectin, thus causing thromboembolism. Ferroptosis mediates virus infection and parasite infection by driving T-cell death and preventing T-cell immunity. Interestingly, ferroptosis is also considered as a critical player in COVID-19 infections, while targetting ferroptosis may also improve thromboembolism and prognosis in patients with COVID-19 infection. Overall, the crucial role of ferroptosis in blood cells will show a new therapeutic potential in blood cell-related diseases.HighlightsFerroptosis shows a new therapeutic potential for blood cell-related diseases.Ferroptosis damages erythropoiesis and thus induces anaemia.Ferroptosis induces platelet activation and leads to thromboembolism.Ferroptosis regulates T-cell and B-cell immunity, which participant in infectious diseases.Inversely, ferroptosis ameliorates acute myeloid leukaemia and T-cell leukaemia.

Role of Iron Chelation and Protease Inhibition of Natural Products on COVID-19 Infection

Although the epidemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 callings for international attention to develop new effective therapeutics, no specific protocol is yet available, leaving patients to rely on general and supportive therapies. A range of respiratory diseases, including pulmonary fibrosis, have been associated with higher iron levels that may promote the course of viral infection. Recent studies have demonstrated that some natural components could act as the first barrier against viral injury by affecting iron metabolism. Moreover, a few recent studies have proposed the combination of protease inhibitors for therapeutic use against SARS-CoV-2 infection, highlighting the role of viral protease in virus infectivity. In this regard, this review focuses on the analysis, through literature and docking studies, of a number of natural products able to counteract SARS-CoV-2 infection, acting both as iron chelators and protease inhibitors.

Identification of multipotent drugs for COVID-19 therapeutics with the evaluation of their SARS-CoV2 inhibitory activity

The SARS-CoV2 is a highly contagious pathogen that causes COVID-19 disease. It has affected millions of people globally with an average lethality of ~3%. There is an urgent need of drugs for the treatment of COVID-19. In the current studies, we have used bioinformatics techniques to screen the FDA approved drugs against nine SARS-CoV2 proteins to identify drugs for repurposing. Additionally, we analyzed if the identified molecules can also affect the human proteins whose expression in lung changed during SARS-CoV2 infection. Targeting such genes may also be a beneficial strategy to curb disease manifestation. We have identified 74 molecules that can bind to various SARS-CoV2 and human host proteins. We experimentally validated our in-silico predictions using vero E6 cells infected with SARS-CoV2 virus. Interestingly, many of our predicted molecules viz. capreomycin, celecoxib, mefloquine, montelukast, and nebivolol showed good activity (IC50) against SARS-CoV2. We hope that these studies may help in the development of new therapeutic options for the treatment of COVID-19.

Circulating cell-free DNA, peripheral lymphocyte subsets alterations and neutrophil lymphocyte ratio in assessment of COVID-19 severity

Cell destruction results in plasma accumulation of cell-free DNA (cfDNA). Dynamic changes in circulating lymphocytes are features of COVID-19. We aimed to investigate if cfDNA level can serve in stratification of COVID-19 patients, and if cfDNA level is associated with alterations in lymphocyte subsets and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR). This cross-sectional comparative study enrolled 64 SARS-CoV-2-positive patients. Patients were subdivided to severe and non-severe groups. Plasma cfDNA concentration was determined by real-time quantitative PCR. Lymphocyte subsets were assessed by flow cytometry. There was significant increase in cfDNA among severe cases when compared with non-severe cases. cfDNA showed positive correlation with NLR and inverse correlation with T cell percentage. cfDNA positively correlated with ferritin and C-reactive protein. The output data of performed ROC curves to differentiate severe from non-severe cases revealed that cfDNA at cut-off ≥17.31 ng/µl and AUC of 0.96 yielded (93%) sensitivity and (73%) specificity. In summary, excessive release of cfDNA can serve as sensitive COVID-19 severity predictor. There is an association between cfDNA up-regulation and NLR up-regulation and T cell percentage down-regulation. cfDNA level can be used in stratification and personalized monitoring strategies in COVID-19 patients.

Construction of an exposure-pathway-phenotype in children with depression due to transfusion-dependent thalassemia: Results of (un)supervised machine learning

BACKGROUND

Transfusion dependent thalassemia (TDT) patients are treated with continued blood transfusions and show a higher prevalence of depression. TDT with consequent iron overload and inflammation is associated with increased severity of depressive symptoms in TDT children.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To construct a pathway-phenotype which combines iron overload and neuro-immune biomarkers with depressive symptom subdomains in TDT children.

METHODS

We measured iron status parameters (iron, ferritin, transferrin saturation percentage) and inflammatory (interleukin-1β and tumour necrosis factor-α) biomarkers in TDT (n=111) and healthy (n=53) children and analyzed the results using machine learning.

RESULTS

Cluster analysis separated TDT children with depression from those without depression and revealed two depressive subgroups one with low self-esteem and another with increased social-irritability scores. Exploratory factor analysis validated four depressive symptom dimensions as reliable constructs, namely key depressive, physiosomatic, lowered self-esteem and social-irritability dimensions. Partial Least Squares showed that 73.0% of the variance in a latent vector extracted from those four clinical subdomains, immune-inflammatory and iron overload biomarkers was explained by exposure variables including the number of blood transfusions and hospitalizations and use of deferoxamine. The exposure data, iron and immune biomarkers, and symptom subdomains are reflective manifestations of a single latent trait, which shows internal consistency reliability and predictive relevance.

CONCLUSIONS

The nomological network combining exposure, pathways and behavioral phenome manifestations provides an index of overall severity and disease risk and, therefore, constitutes a new drug target, indicating that iron overload and immune activation should be targeted to treat depression due to TDT.