1
|
Sartini I, Vercelli C, Lebkowska-Wieruszewska B, Lisowski A, Fadel C, Poapolathep A, Dessì F, Giorgi M. Pharmacokinetics and antibacterial activity of tiamulin after single and multiple oral administrations in geese. Vet Anim Sci 2023; 22:100317. [PMID: 37920697 PMCID: PMC10618762 DOI: 10.1016/j.vas.2023.100317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Tiamulin is an antibiotic approved exclusively in veterinary medicine, active against G-positive bacteria as well as Mycoplasma spp. and Leptospirae spp. The study was aimed to establish its pharmacokinetics and to evaluate drug effects on resistance in cloacal flora in vivo in geese. Eight healthy geese underwent to a two-phase longitudinal study (60 mg/kg single oral administration vs 60 mg/kg/day for 4 days) with a two-week wash-out period. Blood samples and cloacal swabs were collected at pre-assigned times. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) has been evaluated for each isolated bacterial species. The pharmacokinetic parameters that significantly differed between the groups were Cmax (p = 0.024), AUC0-t (p = 0.031), AUC0-inf (p = 0.038), t1/2kel (p = 0.021), Cl/F (p = 0.036), and Vd/F (p = 0.012). Tiamulin exhibited a slow to moderate terminal half-life (3.13 h single; 2.62 h multiple) and a rapid absorption (1 h single; 0.5 h multiple) in geese, with an accumulation ratio of 1.8 after multiple doses. An in-silico simulation of multiple dosing did not reflect the results of the in vivo multiple dosage study. In both treatments, the MIC values were very high demonstrating a resistance (> 64 μg/ml) against tiamulin that can be present prior the drug administration for some strains, or emerge shortly after the commencing of treatment for some others.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Sartini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Cristina Vercelli
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | | | - Andrzej Lisowski
- Department of Biology and Animal Breeding, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Charbel Fadel
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Amnart Poapolathep
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Filomena Dessì
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Mario Giorgi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Via Livornese (lato monte), 56122, San Piero a Grado, Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Dreyer S, Globig A, Bachmann L, Schütz AK, Schaufler K, Homeier-Bachmann T. Longitudinal Study on Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase- E. coli in Sentinel Mallard Ducks in an Important Baltic Stop-Over Site for Migratory Ducks in Germany. Microorganisms 2022; 10:1968. [PMID: 36296245 PMCID: PMC9612239 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 08/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a serious global health threat with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacterales as the most critical ones. Studies on AMR in wild birds imply a possible dissemination function and indicate their potential role as sentinel animals. This study aimed to gain a deeper insight into the AMR burden of wild waterfowl by sampling semi-wild mallard ducks used as sentinels and to identify if AMR bacteria could be recommended to be added to the pathogens of public health risks to be screened for. In total, 376 cloacal and pooled fecal samples were collected from the sentinel plant over a period of two years. Samples were screened for ESBL-carrying E. coli and isolates found further analyzed using antimicrobial susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequencing. Over the sampling period, 4.26% (16/376) of the samples were positive for ESBL-producing E. coli. BlaCTX-M-1 and blaCTX-M-32 were the most abundant CTX-M types. Although none of the top global sequence types (ST) could be detected, poultry-derived ST115 and non-poultry-related STs were found and could be followed over time. The current study revealed low cases of ESBL-producing E. coli in semi-wild mallard ducks, which proves the suitability of sentinel surveillance for AMR detection in water-associated wildlife.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Dreyer
- Institute of International Animal Health/One Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Anja Globig
- Institute of International Animal Health/One Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Lisa Bachmann
- Faculty of Agriculture and Food Science, University of Applied Science Neubrandenburg, 17033 Neubrandenburg, Germany
| | - Anne K. Schütz
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Katharina Schaufler
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
- Institute of Infection Medicine, Christian-Albrecht University Kiel and University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Analysis of migration of pathogenic drug-resistant bacteria to soils and groundwater after fertilization with sewage sludge. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256936. [PMID: 34914715 PMCID: PMC8675741 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The paper discusses the analysis of the effect of using sewage sludge for fertilization on the level of soil and groundwater contamination with drug-resistant bacteria. Other sanitary contaminants in these environments were also analysed. Composted sewage sludge was introduced into the sandy soil over a period of 6 months. The examinations were conducted under conditions of a lysimetric experiment with the possibility of collecting soil leachates (in natural conditions). The following doses of sewage sludge were used: 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 t/ha calculated per experimental object containing 10 kg of sandy soil. The research were carried out within the time frame of one year. Dactylis glomerata grass was grown on the fertilized soils. In soils and leachates from soils (which may have polluted groundwater) collected from fertilized experimental objects, the sanitary condition and quantity of drug-resistant bacteria (mainly from the families Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus) were analysed one year after fertilization. Their drug resistance to selected antibiotics was also analysed based on current recommendations. The study showed that fertilization with sewage sludge (even after stabilization and hygienization) results in contamination of soil and infiltrating waters with many species of drug-resistant pathogenic bacteria. The lowest level of contamination of soil and water environment was found after the application of sewage sludge at a dose of 10 t/ha. The isolated drug-resistant strains of intestinal bacteria were less sensitive to older generations of antibiotics including cefazolin, ampicillin, and co-amoxiclav.
Collapse
|
4
|
Tsai MA, Chang CC, Li TH. Antimicrobial-resistance profiles of gram-negative bacteria isolated from green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in Taiwan. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 277:116870. [PMID: 33714128 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is listed as a globally endangered species and is vulnerable to anthropogenic threats, including environmental pollution. This study investigated the antimicrobial resistance of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from wild green turtles admitted to a sea turtle rehabilitation center in Taiwan. For this investigation, cloacal and nasal swab samples were collected from 28 green turtles between 2018 and 2020, from which a total of 47 Gram-negative bacterial isolates were identified. Among these, Vibrio spp. were the most dominant isolate (31.91%), and 89.36% of the 47 isolates showed resistance to at least one of 18 antimicrobial agents tested. Isolates resistant to one (6.38%), two (8.51%), and multiple (74.47%) antimicrobials were observed. The antimicrobial agents to which isolates showed the greatest resistance were penicillin (74.47%), followed by spiramycin, amoxicillin, and cephalexin. The antimicrobial-resistance profiles identified in this study provide useful information for the clinical treatment of sea turtles in rehabilitation facilities. The results of our study also imply that wild green turtles may be exposed to polluting effluents containing antimicrobials when the turtles traverse migratory corridors or forage in feeding habitats. To benefit sea turtle conservation, future research should focus on (1) how to prevent pollution from antimicrobials in major green turtle activity areas and (2) identifying sources of antimicrobial-resistant bacterial strains in coastal waters of Taiwan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming-An Tsai
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, 91201, Taiwan; International Degree Program of Ornamental Fish Science and Technology, International College, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, 91201, Taiwan.
| | - Chao-Chin Chang
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan.
| | - Tsung-Hsien Li
- National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Checheng, Pingtung, 94450, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Korajkic A, McMinn BR, Staley ZR, Ahmed W, Harwood VJ. Antibiotic-Resistant Enterococcus Species in Marine Habitats: A Review. CURRENT OPINION IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & HEALTH 2020; 19:92-100. [PMID: 33134649 PMCID: PMC7592714 DOI: 10.1016/j.coesh.2020.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus (ARE) are among leading causes of nosocomial infections worldwide. Enterococcus spp. are ubiquitous in sewage, which can contaminate surface waters via many pathways, providing a route of exposure for humans. This review focuses on ARE in marine and estuarine habitats, including marine animals. Phylogenetic confirmation of the genus Enterococcus and intermediate or full resistance to clinically relevant antibiotics were inclusion criteria. The proportion of resistant isolates varied greatly among antibiotics, for example, 24.2% for ampicillin and 2.4% for vancomycin. The water column contained the highest proportion of ARE observations (18.8%), followed by animal feces and tissues (14.8%), sediment (9.4%), and sand (2.0%). The proportion of multidrug-resistant isolates was the greatest in animal tissue and fecal samples, followed by water and sediments. This review indicates that clinically relevant ARE are present in marine/estuarine habitats and that animals may be important reservoirs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asja Korajkic
- United Stated Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Brian R. McMinn
- United Stated Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | - Warish Ahmed
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sabença C, de Sousa T, Oliveira S, Viala D, Théron L, Chambon C, Hébraud M, Beyrouthy R, Bonnet R, Caniça M, Poeta P, Igrejas G. Next-Generation Sequencing and MALDI Mass Spectrometry in the Study of Multiresistant Processed Meat Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE). BIOLOGY 2020; 9:biology9050089. [PMID: 32349310 PMCID: PMC7284646 DOI: 10.3390/biology9050089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), due to their intrinsic resistance to various commonly used antibiotics and their malleable genome, make the treatment of infections caused by these bacteria less effective. The aims of this work were to characterize isolates of Enterococcus spp. that originated from processed meat, through phenotypic and genotypic techniques, as well as to detect putative antibiotic resistance biomarkers. The 19 VRE identified had high resistance to teicoplanin (89%), tetracycline (94%), and erythromycin (84%) and a low resistance to kanamycin (11%), gentamicin (11%), and streptomycin (5%). Based on a Next-Generation Sequencing NGS technique, most isolates were vanA-positive. The most prevalent resistance genes detected were erm(B) and aac(6')-Ii, conferring resistance to the classes of macrolides and aminoglycosides, respectively. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MS) analysis detected an exclusive peak of the Enterococcus genus at m/z (mass-to-charge-ratio) 4428 ± 3, and a peak at m/z 6048 ± 1 allowed us to distinguish Enterococcus faecium from the other species. Several statistically significant protein masses associated with resistance were detected, such as peaks at m/z 6358.27 and m/z 13237.3 in ciprofloxacin resistance isolates. These results reinforce the relevance of the combined and complementary NGS and MALDI-TOF MS techniques for bacterial characterization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Sabença
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (C.S.); (T.d.S.); (S.O.)
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Nova of Lisbon, 2829-516 Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Telma de Sousa
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (C.S.); (T.d.S.); (S.O.)
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Nova of Lisbon, 2829-516 Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Soraia Oliveira
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (C.S.); (T.d.S.); (S.O.)
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Nova of Lisbon, 2829-516 Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Didier Viala
- INRAE, Plateforme d’Exploration du Métabolisme, composante protéomique (PFEMcp), 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France; (D.V.); (C.C.); (M.H.)
| | - Laetitia Théron
- INRAE, UR0370 Qualité des Produits Animaux (QuaPA), 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France;
| | - Christophe Chambon
- INRAE, Plateforme d’Exploration du Métabolisme, composante protéomique (PFEMcp), 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France; (D.V.); (C.C.); (M.H.)
- INRAE, UR0370 Qualité des Produits Animaux (QuaPA), 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France;
| | - Michel Hébraud
- INRAE, Plateforme d’Exploration du Métabolisme, composante protéomique (PFEMcp), 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France; (D.V.); (C.C.); (M.H.)
- INRAE, UMR0454 Microbiologie Environnement Digestif Santé (MEDiS), Université Clermont Auvergne, 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France
| | - Racha Beyrouthy
- Centre National de Référence de la Résistance aux Antibiotiques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 63003 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (R.B.); (R.B.)
- UMR1071 INSERM, USC1382 INRAE Microbiologie Intestin Inflammation et Susceptibilité de l’Hôte (M2iSH), Université Clermont Auvergne, 63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Richard Bonnet
- Centre National de Référence de la Résistance aux Antibiotiques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 63003 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (R.B.); (R.B.)
- UMR1071 INSERM, USC1382 INRAE Microbiologie Intestin Inflammation et Susceptibilité de l’Hôte (M2iSH), Université Clermont Auvergne, 63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Manuela Caniça
- National Reference Laboratory of Antibiotic Resistances and Healthcare Associated Infections, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal;
- Centre for the Studies of Animal Science, Institute of Agrarian and Agri-Food Sciences and Technologies, Oporto University, 4051-401 Oporto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Poeta
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Nova of Lisbon, 2829-516 Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Gilberto Igrejas
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (C.S.); (T.d.S.); (S.O.)
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Nova of Lisbon, 2829-516 Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-259-350-930
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sarker MS, Ahad A, Ghosh SK, Mannan MS, Sen A, Islam S, Bayzid M, Bupasha ZB. Antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in deer and nearby water sources at Safari parks in Bangladesh. Vet World 2019; 12:1578-1583. [PMID: 31849419 PMCID: PMC6868268 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2019.1578-1583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim The emergence and rapid dissemination of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria in different ecosystems is a growing concern to human health, animal health, and the environment in recent years. The study aimed to determine the antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli from deer and nearby water sources at two different Safari parks in Bangladesh. Materials and Methods A number of 55 fresh fecal samples of deer and six water samples from nearby lakes were collected from two Safari parks. Samples were processed, cultured, and carried out biochemical tests for E. coli. The antibiotic susceptibility was determined by disk diffusion method. To identify the resistance genes, polymerase chain reaction was performed. Results A total of 32 E. coli isolates from 55 fecal samples and 6 of 6 E. coli isolates from lake water were isolated. From fecal E. coli isolates, ampicillin and sulfamethoxazole were 90.63% (n=29/32) resistant and 87.5% (n=28/32) were resistant to tetracycline and nalidixic acid. High resistance was also observed to other antibiotics. On the contrary, all E. coli isolates from water sources were 100% (n=6/6) resistant to ampicillin, tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, and nalidixic acid. MDR was revealed in all water samples, whereas 96.88% (n=31/32) was found in fecal isolates. A number of bla TEM, tet A, and Sul2 genes were detected from both isolates. Conclusion This study for the 1st time highlights, a significant proportion of E. coli isolates in wildlife deer and nearby water sources were MDR in Bangladesh.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Md Samun Sarker
- Department of Microbiology and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| | - Abdul Ahad
- Department of Microbiology and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| | - Saurav Kumar Ghosh
- Department of Microbiology and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| | - Md Shahriar Mannan
- Department of Livestock Services, Upazila Livestock Office, Thakurgaon Sadar, Thakurgaon, Bangladesh
| | - Arup Sen
- Department of Microbiology and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| | - Sirazul Islam
- Department of Livestock Services, Upazila Livestock Office, Mithamain, Kishoreganj, Bangladesh
| | - Md Bayzid
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| | - Zamila Bueaza Bupasha
- Department of Microbiology and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Enterococci are natural inhabitants of the intestinal tract in humans and many animals, including food-producing and companion animals. They can easily contaminate the food and the environment, entering the food chain. Moreover, Enterococcus is an important opportunistic pathogen, especially the species E. faecalis and E. faecium, causing a wide variety of infections. This microorganism not only contains intrinsic resistance mechanisms to several antimicrobial agents, but also has the capacity to acquire new mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance. In this review we analyze the diversity of enterococcal species and their distribution in the intestinal tract of animals. Moreover, resistance mechanisms for different classes of antimicrobials of clinical relevance are reviewed, as well as the epidemiology of multidrug-resistant enterococci of animal origin, with special attention given to beta-lactams, glycopeptides, and linezolid. The emergence of new antimicrobial resistance genes in enterococci of animal origin, such as optrA and cfr, is highlighted. The molecular epidemiology and the population structure of E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates in farm and companion animals is presented. Moreover, the types of plasmids that carry the antimicrobial resistance genes in enterococci of animal origin are reviewed.
Collapse
|
9
|
Affiliation(s)
- Ana P. G. Frazzon
- Microbiology; Immunology and Parasitology Department; Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul; Porto Alegre-RS 90040-060 Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Marinho CM, Santos T, Gonçalves A, Poeta P, Igrejas G. A Decade-Long Commitment to Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance in Portugal. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1650. [PMID: 27843438 PMCID: PMC5086874 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a worldwide problem with serious health and economic repercussions. Since the 1940s, underuse, overuse, and misuse of antibiotics have had a significant environmental downside. Large amounts of antibiotics not fully metabolized after use in human and veterinary medicine, and other applications, are annually released into the environment. The result has been the development and dissemination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria due to many years of selective pressure. Surveillance of AMR provides important information that helps in monitoring and understanding how resistance mechanisms develop and disseminate within different environments. Surveillance data is needed to inform clinical therapy decisions, to guide policy proposals, and to assess the impact of action plans to fight AMR. The Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, based at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro in Vila Real, Portugal, has recently completed 10 years of research surveying AMR in bacteria, mainly commensal indicator bacteria such as enterococci and Escherichia coli from the microbiota of different animals. Samples from more than 75 different sources have been accessed, from humans to food-producing animals, pets, and wild animals. The typical microbiological workflow involved phenotypic studies followed by molecular approaches. Throughout the decade, 4,017 samples were collected and over 5,000 bacterial isolates obtained. High levels of AMR to several antimicrobial classes have been reported, including to β-lactams, glycopeptides, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, sulphonamides, and quinolones. Multi-resistant strains, some relevant to human and veterinary medicine like extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing E. coli and vancomycin-resistant enterococci, have been repeatedly isolated even in non-synanthropic animal species. Of particular relevance are reports of AMR bacteria in wildlife from natural reserves and endangered species. Future work awaits as this threatening yet unsolved problem persists. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACTSummary diagram of the antimicrobial resistance surveillance work developed by the UTAD Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catarina M. Marinho
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, School of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
| | - Tiago Santos
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, School of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Gonçalves
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, School of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Poeta
- Veterinary Science Department, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Nova of LisbonLisbon, Portugal
| | - Gilberto Igrejas
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, School of Life and Environment Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto DouroVila Real, Portugal
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Nova of LisbonLisbon, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Medeiros AW, Blaese Amorim D, Tavares M, de Moura TM, Franco AC, d'Azevedo PA, Frazzon J, Frazzon APG. Enterococcus species diversity in fecal samples of wild marine species as determined by real-time PCR. Can J Microbiol 2016; 63:129-136. [PMID: 27991828 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2016-0427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Analyses using culture-independent molecular techniques have improved our understanding of microbial composition. The aim of this work was to identify and quantify enterococci in fecal samples of wild marine species using real-time quantitative PCR. Seven Enterococcus species were examined in fecal DNA of South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis), Subantarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus tropicalis), green turtles (Chelonia mydas), Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), snowy-crowned tern (Sterna trudeaui), white-backed stilt (Himantopus melanurus), white-chinned petrels (Procellaria aequinoctialis), red knot (Calidris canutus), and black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophris). All Enterococcus species evaluated were detected in all fecal samples of wild marine species, with a concentration ranging between 106 and 1012 copies/ng of total DNA. Differences in the enterococci distribution were observed. Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus mundtii were most abundant in marine mammals. Enterococcus faecalis was frequent in green turtle, Magellanic penguin, snowy-crowned tern, red knot, and black-browed albatross. Enterococcus hirae and Enterococcus gallinarum showed elevated occurrence in white-backed stilt, and Enterococcus faecium in white-chinned petrel. This study showed highest diversity of enterococci in feces of wild marine species than currently available data, and reinforced the use of culture-independent analysis to help us to enhance our understanding of enterococci in gastrointestinal tracts of wild marine species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aline Weber Medeiros
- a Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Sarmento Leite, 500, CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Derek Blaese Amorim
- b Center for Coastal Studies, Limnology and Marine, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Tramandaí, 976, CEP 95625-000, Imbé, RS, Brazil
| | - Maurício Tavares
- b Center for Coastal Studies, Limnology and Marine, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Tramandaí, 976, CEP 95625-000, Imbé, RS, Brazil
| | - Tiane Martin de Moura
- c Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Pelotas, Rua Gomes Carneiro, 1 - Centro, CEP 96010-610, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Claudia Franco
- a Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Sarmento Leite, 500, CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Pedro Alves d'Azevedo
- d Gram-positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Jeverson Frazzon
- e Food Science Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500 - Campus do Vale - Prédio 443.212, CEP 91501-970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Guedes Frazzon
- a Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Sarmento Leite, 500, CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Prichula J, Pereira RI, Wachholz GR, Cardoso LA, Tolfo NCC, Santestevan NA, Medeiros AW, Tavares M, Frazzon J, d'Azevedo PA, Frazzon APG. Resistance to antimicrobial agents among enterococci isolated from fecal samples of wild marine species in the southern coast of Brazil. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 105:51-57. [PMID: 26952995 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.02.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate species distribution, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and presence of resistance genes in enterococci isolated from fecal samples of wild marine species, including seabirds (n=12), sea turtles (n=8), and mammals (n=3) found alive or dead in southern coast of Brazil. Enterococci were classified based on phenotypic and genotypic characteristics, tested for antibiotic susceptibility, and the presence of tet(S), tet(M), tet(L), mrsC, and erm(B) genes by PCR. Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium were the most common species. Single (37.09%), double (25.80%), and multiple (16.12%) antibiotic resistance patterns were observed. Resistance to rifampicin occurred most frequently. The msrC, tet(M), and/or tet(L) genes were detected in 60.15%, 73.07%, and 23.07% of the resistant strains, respectively. In conclusion, the presence of antibiotic resistant strains in these species could be related to food web interactions and aquatic pollutants or linked to environmental resistome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janira Prichula
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Sarmento Leite 500, room 158, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Gram-positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Sarmento Leite 245, room 204, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rebeca Inhoque Pereira
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Sarmento Leite 500, room 158, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Gram-positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Sarmento Leite 245, room 204, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Raffo Wachholz
- Gram-positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Sarmento Leite 245, room 204, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Almansa Cardoso
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Sarmento Leite 500, room 158, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Neidimar Cezar Correa Tolfo
- Gram-positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Sarmento Leite 245, room 204, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Naiara Aguiar Santestevan
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Sarmento Leite 500, room 158, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Aline Weber Medeiros
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Sarmento Leite 500, room 158, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Maurício Tavares
- Center for Coastal Studies, Limnology and Marine (CECLIMAR), Institute of Biosciences, UFRGS. Av. Tramandaí, 976, 95625-000, Imbé, RS, Brazil
| | - Jeverson Frazzon
- Food Science Institute, UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500 - Campus do Vale - Prédio 443.212, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Pedro Alves d'Azevedo
- Gram-positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Sarmento Leite 245, room 204, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Guedes Frazzon
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Sarmento Leite 500, room 158, 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Santestevan NA, de Angelis Zvoboda D, Prichula J, Pereira RI, Wachholz GR, Cardoso LA, de Moura TM, Medeiros AW, de Amorin DB, Tavares M, d'Azevedo PA, Franco AC, Frazzon J, Frazzon APG. Antimicrobial resistance and virulence factor gene profiles of Enterococcus spp. isolates from wild Arctocephalus australis (South American fur seal) and Arctocephalus tropicalis (Subantarctic fur seal). World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 31:1935-46. [PMID: 26347323 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-015-1938-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Enterococci are natural inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tracts in humans and animals. Epidemiological data suggest that enterococci are important reservoirs of antimicrobial resistant genes that may be transmitted from other bacterial species The aim of this study was to investigate the species composition, antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes in enterococci recovered from fecal samples of wild Arctocephalus australis and A. tropicalis found dead along the South Coast of Brazil. From a total of 43 wild fur seals, eleven were selected for this study. Phenotypic and genotypic characterizations were used to classify Enterococcus species. Strains were tested for susceptibility to 10 antibiotics, presence of ace, gelE, asa, cylA, tet(L), tet(M) and erm(B) genes by PCR, and genetic variability using RAPD-PCR. Among the 50 enterococci isolated, 40% were Enterococcus faecalis, 40% E. hirae, 12% E. casseliflavus and 8 % other enterococcal species. Resistance profiles were observed to erythromycin, nitrofurantoin, tetracycline, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. The prevalence of virulence genes was ace (68%), gelE (54%), asa (22%) and cylA (4%). In erythromycin- and tetracycline strains, erm(B) and tet(M) were detected, respectively. The RAPD-PCR demonstrated a close phylogenetic relationship between the enterococci isolated from A. australis and A. tropicalis. In conclusion, different enterococcus species showing antimicrobial resistance and virulence determinates were isolated from fecal samples of fur seals. Antibiotic resistant strains in these animals could be related within food chain and aquatic pollutants or linked to environmental resistome, and demonstrates the potential importance of these animals as reservoirs and disseminators of such determinants in marine environmental.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naiara Aguiar Santestevan
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Sarmento Leite 500, Room 158, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Dejoara de Angelis Zvoboda
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Sarmento Leite 500, Room 158, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Janira Prichula
- Gram Positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences Porto Alegre, Av. Sarmento Leite 245, Room 204, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rebeca Inhoque Pereira
- Gram Positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences Porto Alegre, Av. Sarmento Leite 245, Room 204, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Raffo Wachholz
- Gram Positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences Porto Alegre, Av. Sarmento Leite 245, Room 204, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Almansa Cardoso
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Sarmento Leite 500, Room 158, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Tiane Martin de Moura
- Gram Positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences Porto Alegre, Av. Sarmento Leite 245, Room 204, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Aline Weber Medeiros
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Sarmento Leite 500, Room 158, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Derek Blaese de Amorin
- Center for Coastal Studies, Limnology and Marine (Ceclimar), Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Tramandaí, 976, ZIP. 95625-000, Imbé, RS, Brazil
| | - Maurício Tavares
- Center for Coastal Studies, Limnology and Marine (Ceclimar), Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Tramandaí, 976, ZIP. 95625-000, Imbé, RS, Brazil
| | - Pedro Alves d'Azevedo
- Gram Positive Coccus Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences Porto Alegre, Av. Sarmento Leite 245, Room 204, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Claudia Franco
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Sarmento Leite 500, Room 158, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Jeverson Frazzon
- Department of Food Science, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500 - Campus do Vale - Prédio 443.212, ZIP. 91501-970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Guedes Frazzon
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Sarmento Leite 500, Room 158, ZIP. 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bacteria isolated from shellfish digestive gland with antipathogenic activity as candidates to increase the efficiency of shellfish depuration process. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
|
15
|
Azorean wild rabbits as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli. Anaerobe 2014; 30:116-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2014.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
16
|
Sousa M, Gonçalves A, Silva N, Serra R, Alcaide E, Zorrilla I, Torres C, Caniça M, Igrejas G, Poeta P. Acquired antibiotic resistance among wild animals: the case of Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus). Vet Q 2014; 34:105-12. [PMID: 25220796 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2014.949391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The selective pressure generated by the clinical misuse of antibiotics has been the major driving force leading to the emergence of antibiotic resistance among bacteria. Antibiotics or even resistant bacteria are released into the environment and contaminate the surrounding areas. Human and animal populations in contact with these sources are able to become reservoirs of these resistant organisms. Then, due to the convergence between habitats, the contact of wild animals with other animals, humans, or human sources is now more common and this leads to an increase in the exchange of resistance determinants between their microbiota. Indeed, it seems that wildlife populations living in closer proximity to humans have higher levels of antibiotic resistance. Now, the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) is a part of this issue, being suggested as natural reservoir of acquired resistant bacteria. The emerging public health concern regarding microbial resistance to antibiotics is becoming true: the bacteria are evolving and are now affecting unintentional hosts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Sousa
- a Veterinary and Animal Science Research Center (CECAV) , University of Tras-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD) , Vila Real , Portugal
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Balasubramaniam A, Arthanari Eswaran M, Suresh P, Sukumar K. Detection of tetracycline resistance determinant tetA gene and antimicrobial resistance pattern in Escherichia coli isolates recovered from healthy layer chickens. Vet World 2014. [DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2014.635-638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
|
18
|
Radhouani H, Silva N, Poeta P, Torres C, Correia S, Igrejas G. Potential impact of antimicrobial resistance in wildlife, environment and human health. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:23. [PMID: 24550896 PMCID: PMC3913889 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the significant spatial and temporal heterogeneity in antimicrobial resistance distribution and the factors that affect its evolution, dissemination, and persistence, it is important to highlight that antimicrobial resistance must be viewed as an ecological problem. Monitoring the resistance prevalence of indicator bacteria such as Escherichia coli and enterococci in wild animals makes it possible to show that wildlife has the potential to serve as an environmental reservoir and melting pot of bacterial resistance. These researchers address the issue of antimicrobial-resistant microorganism proliferation in the environment and the related potential human health and environmental impact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hajer Radhouani
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Genomics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Animal and Veterinary Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Veterinary Science Department, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Nuno Silva
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Poeta
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Veterinary Science Department, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Carmen Torres
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Area, University of La Rioja Logroño, Spain
| | - Susana Correia
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Genomics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Animal and Veterinary Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Veterinary Science Department, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Gilberto Igrejas
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Genomics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal ; Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Santos T, Silva N, Igrejas G, Rodrigues P, Micael J, Rodrigues T, Resendes R, Gonçalves A, Marinho C, Gonçalves D, Cunha R, Poeta P. Dissemination of antibiotic resistant Enterococcus spp. and Escherichia coli from wild birds of Azores Archipelago. Anaerobe 2013; 24:25-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 08/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|