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Zhao S, Su Q, Huang L, Wang C, Ma J, Zhu L, Cheng Y, Yang X, Yang Y, Kang B. Assessment of potentially toxic element contamination in commercially harvested invertebrates from the Beibu Gulf, China. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 202:106744. [PMID: 39288544 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2024.106744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 08/26/2024] [Accepted: 09/08/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
Marine pollutants, especially potentially toxic elements (PTEs), increasingly threaten the ecological environment and fishery resources of the Beibu Gulf due to their bioaccumulative nature, toxicity, and persistence. However, the occurrences of multiple PTEs in marine invertebrates within this region remains unclear. Hence, a total of 18 species of commercially harvested invertebrates (shrimp, crab, cephalopod, shellfish, and sea cucumber) were collected from the Beibu Gulf, and the concentrations of nine important PTEs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were examined. Subsequent stable isotope analysis for δ13C and δ15N facilitated investigations into biomagnification and human health risk assessment. The results showed that, except for As, the concentrations of the PTEs in the invertebrates were below the national safety limits. Furthermore, significant positive correlations were found between trophic levels (TLs) and log-transformed concentrations of As (P < 0.001, R2 = 0.20) and Cr (P < 0.001, R2 = 0.13), indicating biomagnification of these two metals across trophic positions among species. Finally, the human health risk assessment revealed that the consumption of cephalopod, shellfish, and sea cucumber poses a higher risk of adverse effects compared to shrimp and crab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuwen Zhao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Qiongyuan Su
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Liangliang Huang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control Theory and Technology, Guilin, 541004, China.
| | - Caiguang Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Guangxi Collaborative Innovation Center for Water Pollution Control and Water Safety in Karst Areas, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Jie Ma
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Liang Zhu
- College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou, 550000, China
| | - Yanan Cheng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Xi Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Yiheng Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Bin Kang
- College of Fisheries, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, 266100, China
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2
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Bradford MA, Mallory ML, O'Driscoll NJ. Ecology and environmental characteristics influence methylmercury bioaccumulation in coastal invertebrates. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 346:140502. [PMID: 37866498 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Quantifying mercury (Hg) concentrations in invertebrates is fundamental to determining risk for bioaccumulation in higher trophic level organisms in coastal food webs. Bioaccumulation is influenced by local mercury concentrations, site geochemistry, individual feeding ecologies, and trophic position. We sampled seven species of invertebrates from five coastal sites in the Minas Basin, Bay of Fundy, and determined body concentrations of methylmercury (MeHg), total mercury (THg), and stable isotopes of nitrogen (δ15N) and carbon (δ13C). To evaluate the effects of environmental chemistry on Hg production and bioaccumulation, bulk sediments from all sites were analysed for THg, %Loss on ignition (LOI) (carbon), and sulfur isotopes (δ34S), and concentrations of MeHg, Total Organic Carbon (TOC), sulfate, and sulfide were measured in porewaters. The mean concentration of MeHg in tissues for all invertebrates sampled was 10.03 ± 7.04 ng g-1). MeHg in porewater (mean = 0.22-1.59 ng L-1) was the strongest predictor of invertebrate MeHg, but sediment δ34S (-0.80-14.1‰) was also a relatively strong predictor. δ34S in tissues (measured in three species; Corophium volutator, Ilyanassa obsoleta, and Littorina littorea) were positively related to MeHg in invertebrates (r = 0.55, 0.22, and 0.71 respectively), and when used in combination with δ15N and δ13C values improved predictions of Hg concentrations in biota. Hg concentrations in the amphipod Corophium volutator (mean MeHg = 10.60 ± 1.90 ng g-1) were particularly well predicted using porewater and sediment chemistry, highlighting this species as a useful bioindicator of Hg contamination in sediments of the Bay of Fundy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly A Bradford
- Earth and Environmental Science Department, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada.
| | - Mark L Mallory
- Biology Department, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Nelson J O'Driscoll
- Earth and Environmental Science Department, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
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3
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Cunha M, Cruz I, Pinto J, Benito D, Ruiz P, Soares AMVM, Pereira E, Izagirre U, Freitas R. The influence of temperature on the effects of lead and lithium in Mytilus galloprovincialis through biochemical, cell and tissue levels: Comparison between mono and multi-element exposures. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 902:165786. [PMID: 37499837 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) and lithium (Li) are metals which have been detected in the environment and, at high concentrations, can induce toxic effects that disturb the growth, metabolism or reproduction of organisms along the entire trophic chain. The impacts of these metals have scarcely been investigated using marine bivalves, especially when acting as a mixture. The present study aimed to investigate the influence of temperature on the ecotoxicological effects caused by Pb and Li, acting alone and as a mixture, on the mussel species Mytilus galloprovincialis after 28 days of exposure. The impacts were evaluated under actual (17 °C) and projected (+4 °C) warming conditions, to understand the influence of temperature rise on the effects of the metals (both acting alone or as a mixture). The results obtained showed that the increased temperature did not influence the accumulation of metals. However, the biomarkers evaluated showed greater responses in mussels that are exposed to metals under increased temperature (21 °C). The IBR index showed that there is a comparable toxic effect of Li and Pb separately, while exposure to a mixture of both pollutants causes a significantly higher stress response. Overall, the results obtained revealed that temperature may cause extra stress on the mussels and exposure to the metal mixture caused the greatest impacts compared to each metal acting alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Cunha
- Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Iara Cruz
- Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - João Pinto
- Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; LAQV-REQUIMTE - Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Denis Benito
- BCTA Research Group, Department of Zoology and Animal Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Sarriena auzoa z/g, E-48940 Leioa-Bizkaia, Basque Country, Spain; Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology (PiE-UPV/EHU), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Areatza z/g, E-48620 Plentzia-Bizkaia, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Pamela Ruiz
- BCTA Research Group, Department of Zoology and Animal Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Sarriena auzoa z/g, E-48940 Leioa-Bizkaia, Basque Country, Spain; Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology (PiE-UPV/EHU), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Areatza z/g, E-48620 Plentzia-Bizkaia, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Amadeu M V M Soares
- Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Eduarda Pereira
- Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; LAQV-REQUIMTE - Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Urtzi Izagirre
- BCTA Research Group, Department of Zoology and Animal Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Sarriena auzoa z/g, E-48940 Leioa-Bizkaia, Basque Country, Spain; Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology (PiE-UPV/EHU), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Areatza z/g, E-48620 Plentzia-Bizkaia, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Rosa Freitas
- Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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4
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Han S, Zhu G. Niche separation, dynamics, and transport pattern of trace elements along Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) to its exclusive predator, mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 191:114956. [PMID: 37121190 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the dynamics of the trophic niches and the accumulation and transfer of four trace elements-Cu, Cd, Zn, and Pb-from Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) to mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari) were investigated. The results demonstrated that the average concentrations of Zn, Cu, Cd, and Pb in E. superba were significantly higher than those of the corresponding elements in C. gunnari. These trace elements have a biodilution effect through E. superba to C. gunnari, and Cu has the lowest biomagnification factor among those four trace elements. It is observed that the Cu concentration in E. superba is correlated with its δ15N and δ13C, and the enrichment of Pb in C. gunnari is affected by its δ15N.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shulin Han
- College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Guoping Zhu
- College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; Center for Polar Research, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; Polar Marine Ecosystem Group, The Key Laboratory of Sustainable Exploitation of Oceanic Fisheries Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 201306, China; National Engineering Research Center for Oceanic Fisheries, Shanghai 201306, China.
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5
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Bradford MA, Mallory ML, O'Driscoll NJ. Mercury bioaccumulation and speciation in coastal invertebrates: Implications for trophic magnification in a marine food web. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 188:114647. [PMID: 36736254 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Studies on mercury bioaccumulation and biomagnification in coastal invertebrates in eastern Canada are limited, but these data are necessary to determine risk of mercury exposure effects in upper trophic level organisms. We quantified methylmercury (MeHg), total mercury (THg), and stable isotopes of δ13C and δ15N in 14 species of invertebrates in the Minas Basin. The overall mean concentration of MeHg (12.78 ± 11.23 ng/g dw) was approximately 10 times below the Canadian guideline for the protection of wildlife consumers like fish and birds of 157.20 ng/g dry weight (dw). Invertebrates at higher trophic positions (δ15N) had greater THg and particularly MeHg. The Trophic Magnification Factors (TMF) for MeHg and THg (1.59 and 1.21 respectively) were similar to others reported in studies of food webs containing higher trophic level organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly A Bradford
- Earth and Environmental Science Department, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada.
| | - Mark L Mallory
- Biology Department, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Nelson J O'Driscoll
- Earth and Environmental Science Department, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
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6
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Barbosa H, Soares AMVM, Pereira E, Freitas R. Lithium: A review on concentrations and impacts in marine and coastal systems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159374. [PMID: 36240931 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The Lithium (Li) industry has been expanding worldwide, over the last decades, and projections expect an increasing demand for its production in the coming years. It has been identified as an emerging pollutant and it occurs widely in aquatic environments, raising concern about its effects on ecosystems. Besides the increasing research on this topic, there is still limited understanding and discussion on the marine and coastal implications of Li occurrence. The present review aims to fill these knowledge gaps by analysing the literature concerning Li occurrence and its effects on marine and coastal ecosystems, including transition areas. Since 1960, the number of publications has increased, especially over the last decade, and available information has reported Li in water and sediments of these areas, while few studies investigated Li in tissues of biota. Among all the studied ecosystems, Chile reported one of the highest Li concentrations. Regarding the adverse effects of Li in aquatic organisms, Bacillariophyceae, Scyphozoa, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, Polychaeta, Malacostraca, Echinoidea and Actinopteri were the studied taxonomic classes, and development inhibition, malformations, cellular and metabolic alterations, and behaviour changes were some of the observed impacts. This review might be particularly important in the mitigation of Li pollution as well as in the implementation of new directives and thresholds, as it highlights the impacts of Li and the urgent need to address new solutions and alternatives, meeting the Agenda 2030 for sustainable development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Barbosa
- Department of Biology & CESAM, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Amadeu M V M Soares
- Department of Biology & CESAM, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Eduarda Pereira
- Department of Chemistry & REQUIMTE, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Rosa Freitas
- Department of Biology & CESAM, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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7
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McIntyre JA, O'Driscoll NJ, Spooner I, Robertson GJ, Smol JP, Mallory ML. Scavenging gulls are biovectors of mercury from industrial wastes in Nova Scotia, Canada. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 304:135279. [PMID: 35691403 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Seabirds are important biovectors of contaminants, like mercury, moving them from marine to terrestrial environments around breeding colonies. This transfer of materials can have marked impacts on receiving environments and biota. Less is known about biotransport of contaminants by generalist seabirds that exploit anthropogenic wastes compared to other seabird species. In this study, we measured total mercury (THg) in O-horizon soils at four herring gull (Larus smithsoniansus) breeding colonies in southern Nova Scotia, Canada. At colonies with dry substrate, THg was significantly higher in soils collected from gull colonies compared to nearby reference soils with no nesting gulls. Further, THg was distinct in soils among study colonies and was likely influenced by biotransport from other nesting seabird species, most notably Leach's storm-petrels (Hydrobates leucorhous). Our research suggests gulls that scavenge on anthropogenic wastes at local industrial sites are biovectors moving THg acquired at these sites to their colonies and may increase the spatial footprint of contaminants from these industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessie A McIntyre
- Biology, Acadia University, 33 Westwood Avenue, Wolfville, NS, B4P 2R6, Canada.
| | - Nelson J O'Driscoll
- Earth & Environmental Science, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Ian Spooner
- Earth & Environmental Science, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Gregory J Robertson
- Wildlife Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 6 Bruce Street, Mount Pearl, NL, A1N 4T3, Canada
| | - John P Smol
- Paleoecological Environmental Assessment and Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Mark L Mallory
- Biology, Acadia University, 33 Westwood Avenue, Wolfville, NS, B4P 2R6, Canada
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8
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Correia E, Granadeiro JP, Vale C, Catry T. Linking trophic ecology with element concentrations in a coastal fish community of the Bijagós Archipelago, West Africa. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 178:113555. [PMID: 35339058 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We report the concentration of 13 elements in the muscle and liver of 17 coastal fish species of the Bijagós Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau, and link element concentrations to trophic ecology as assessed by carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotopes. We found higher concentrations of Hg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Se and As in liver as compared to muscle tissue, and the opposite pattern for Sr and Ca in all fish species. The concentration of Hg and Se in muscle samples increased significantly with δ15N, suggesting a biomagnification of these elements in this food chain. The concentrations of Ca and Sr, Fe and Cr, Ca and Mn, and Fe and Mn were positively correlated to each other in more than 50% of the studied species. Fish constitute the most important animal protein source for people in Guinea-Bissau, and thus assessing the concentrations of potentially toxic elements is relevant for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna Correia
- Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - José Pedro Granadeiro
- Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carlos Vale
- IPMA - Divisão de Oceanografia e Ambiente Marinho, Instituto Português Do Mar da Atmosfera, I.P., Avenida Doutor Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165 Algés, Portugal
| | - Teresa Catry
- Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
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9
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Smith RA, Yurkowski DJ, Parkinson KJL, Fort J, Hennin HL, Gilchrist HG, Hobson KA, Mallory ML, Danielsen J, Garbus SE, Hanssen SA, Jónsson JE, Latty CJ, Magnúsdóttir E, Moe B, Parsons GJ, Sonne C, Tertitski G, Love OP. Environmental and life-history factors influence inter-colony multidimensional niche metrics of a breeding Arctic marine bird. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 796:148935. [PMID: 34274678 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Human industrialization has resulted in rapid climate change, leading to wide-scale environmental shifts. These shifts can modify food web dynamics by altering the abundance and distribution of primary producers (ice algae and phytoplankton), as well as animals at higher trophic levels. Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neuro-endocrine disrupting compound which biomagnifies in animals as a function of prey choice, and as such bioavailability is affected by altered food web dynamics and adds an important risk-based dimension in studies of foraging ecology. Multidimensional niche dynamics (MDND; δ13C, δ15N, THg; total mercury) were determined among breeding common eider (Somateria mollissima) ducks sampled from 10 breeding colonies distributed across the circumpolar Arctic and subarctic. Results showed high variation in MDND among colonies as indicated by niche size and ranges in δ13C, δ15N and THg values in relation to spatial differences in primary production inferred from sea-ice presence and colony migratory status. Colonies with higher sea-ice cover during the pre-incubation period had higher median colony THg, δ15N, and δ13C. Individuals at migratory colonies had relatively higher THg and δ15N, and lower δ13C, suggesting a higher trophic position and a greater reliance on phytoplankton-based prey. It was concluded that variation in MDND exists among eider colonies which influenced individual blood THg concentrations. Further exploration of spatial ecotoxicology and MDND at each individual site is important to examine the relationships between anthropogenic activities, foraging behaviour, and the related risks of contaminant exposure at even low, sub-lethal concentrations that may contribute to deleterious effects on population stability over time. Overall, multidimensional niche analysis that incorporates multiple isotopic and contaminant metrics could help identify those populations at risk to rapidly altered food web dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reyd A Smith
- University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada.
| | | | | | - Jérôme Fort
- Littoral, Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS - La Rochelle University, La Rochelle FR-17000, France
| | - Holly L Hennin
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K0A 1H0, Canada
| | - H Grant Gilchrist
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K0A 1H0, Canada
| | | | - Mark L Mallory
- cadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia B4P 2R6, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Jón Einar Jónsson
- University of Iceland's Research Centre at Snæfellsnes, Hafnargata 3, 340 Stykkishólmur, Iceland
| | - Christopher J Latty
- Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fairbanks, AK 99701, United States
| | - Ellen Magnúsdóttir
- University of Iceland's Research Centre at Snæfellsnes, Hafnargata 3, 340 Stykkishólmur, Iceland
| | - Børge Moe
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Tromsø N-9296, Norway
| | - Glen J Parsons
- Nova Scotia Department of Lands and Forestry, Kentville, Nova Scotia B4N 4E5, Canada
| | | | - Grigori Tertitski
- Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119017, Russia
| | - Oliver P Love
- University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
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10
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Souza IC, Morozesk M, Azevedo VC, Mendes VAS, Duarte ID, Rocha LD, Matsumoto ST, Elliott M, Baroni MV, Wunderlin DA, Monferrán MV, Fernandes MN. Trophic transfer of emerging metallic contaminants in a neotropical mangrove ecosystem food web. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 408:124424. [PMID: 33183835 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Emerging metallic contaminants (EMCs) are of concern due their presence in aquatic ecosystems and the lack of environmental regulations in several countries. This study verifies the presence of EMCs in two neotropical mangrove estuarine ecosystems (Espírito Santo Brazil) by evaluating abiotic and biotic matrices across six trophic levels (plankton, oyster, shrimp, mangrove trees, crabs and fish) and hence interrogates the trophic transfer of these elements and their possible input sources. Using the oyster Crassostrea rhizophorae as a biomonitor, ten EMCs (Bi, Ce, La, Nb, Sn, Ta, Ti, W, Y and Zr) were determined. Bi input was from iron export and pelletizing industries; Ce, La and Y inputs were mainly associated with solid waste from steel production, while Zr, Nb and Ti were related to atmospheric particulate matter emissions. EMCs were detected at various trophic levels, showing biomagnification for most of them in the Santa Cruz estuary but biodilution in Vitória Bay. These contrasting results between the estuaries could be attributed to different pollution degrees, needing further research to be fully understood. This is the first report demonstrating EMCs trophic pathways in situ, constituting an essential baseline for future research and safety regulations involving EMCs in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iara C Souza
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de São Carlos (DCF/UFSCar), Ave. Washington Luiz, km 235, São Carlos 13565-905, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mariana Morozesk
- Instituto de Ciências Puras e Aplicadas, Universidade Federal de Itajubá (ICPA/UNIFEI), Irmã Ivone Drumond St., 200, Distrito Industrial II, 35903-087 Itabira, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Vinicius C Azevedo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Dr, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Vitor A S Mendes
- Departamento de Engenharia de Materiais, Universidade Federal de São Carlos (DEMa/UFSCar), São Carlos, SP, Brazil Ave. Washington Luiz, km 235, São Carlos, 13565-905, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ian D Duarte
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (DBV/UFES), Ave. Fernando Ferrari, 514, 29075-910, Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil
| | - Livia D Rocha
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (DBV/UFES), Ave. Fernando Ferrari, 514, 29075-910, Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil
| | - Silvia T Matsumoto
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (DBV/UFES), Ave. Fernando Ferrari, 514, 29075-910, Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil
| | - Michael Elliott
- Department of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX UK; International Estuarine & Coastal Specialists Ltd. Leven HU17 5LQ, UK
| | - María V Baroni
- ICYTAC: Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos Córdoba, CONICET and Departmento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Bv. Medina Allende s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Daniel A Wunderlin
- ICYTAC: Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos Córdoba, CONICET and Departmento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Bv. Medina Allende s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Magdalena V Monferrán
- ICYTAC: Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos Córdoba, CONICET and Departmento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Bv. Medina Allende s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Marisa N Fernandes
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de São Carlos (DCF/UFSCar), Ave. Washington Luiz, km 235, São Carlos 13565-905, São Paulo, Brazil.
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11
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Thibon F, Weppe L, Vigier N, Churlaud C, Lacoue-Labarthe T, Metian M, Cherel Y, Bustamante P. Large-scale survey of lithium concentrations in marine organisms. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 751:141453. [PMID: 32882547 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Trace metals such as Cu, Hg, and Zn have been widely investigated in marine ecotoxicological studies considering their bioaccumulation, transfer along trophic webs, and the risks they pose to ecosystems and human health. Comparatively, Li has received little attention, although this element is increasingly used in the high-tech, ceramics/glass, and medication industries. Here, we report Li concentrations in more than 400 samples, including whole organisms and different organs of bivalves, cephalopods, crustaceans, and fish. We investigated species from three contrasting biogeographic areas, i.e. temperate (Bay of Biscay, northeast Atlantic Ocean), tropical (New Caledonia, Pacific Ocean), and subpolar climates (Kerguelen Islands, southern Indian Ocean), among diverse trophic groups (filter-feeders to meso-predators) and habitats (benthic, demersal, and pelagic). Although Li is homogeneously distributed in the ocean (at 0.18 μg/mL), Li concentrations in soft tissues vary greatly, from 0.01 to 1.20 μg/g dry weight. Multiple correspondence analyses reveal two clusters of high and low Li concentrations. Li distributions in marine organisms appear to be mostly geographically independent, though our results highlight a temperature dependency in fish muscles. Li is consistently bio-reduced through the trophic webs, with filter-feeders showing the highest concentrations and predatory fish the lowest. Strong variations are observed among organs, consistent with the biochemical similarity between Na and Li during transport in the brain and in osmoregulatory organs. Fish gills and kidneys show relatively high Li concentrations (0.26 and 0.15 μg/g, respectively) and fish brains show a large range of Li contents (up to 0.34 μg/g), whereas fish liver and muscles are Li depleted (0.07 ± 0.03 and 0.06 ± 0.08 μg/g, respectively). Altogether, these results provide the first exhaustive baseline for future Li ecotoxicology studies in marine coastal environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Thibon
- Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LOV), UMR 7093 CNRS - Sorbonne Université, 06230 Villefranche-sur-Mer, France.
| | - L Weppe
- Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LOV), UMR 7093 CNRS - Sorbonne Université, 06230 Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - N Vigier
- Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LOV), UMR 7093 CNRS - Sorbonne Université, 06230 Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - C Churlaud
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS - La Rochelle Université, F-17000 La Rochelle, France
| | - T Lacoue-Labarthe
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS - La Rochelle Université, F-17000 La Rochelle, France
| | - M Metian
- International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Environment Laboratories, 4a, Quai Antoine 1er, MC- 98000, Principality of Monaco, Monaco
| | - Y Cherel
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC), UMR 7372 CNRS - La Rochelle Université, 79360 Villiers- en-Bois, France
| | - P Bustamante
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS - La Rochelle Université, F-17000 La Rochelle, France; Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 75005 Paris, France
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12
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Erasmus A, Ikenaka Y, Nakayama SMM, Ishizuka M, Smit NJ, Wepener V. Trophic transfer of pollutants within two intertidal rocky shore ecosystems in different biogeographic regions of South Africa. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 157:111309. [PMID: 32658675 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Tsitsikamma and Sheffield Beach are two relatively pristine sites along the South African east coast representing warm temperate and subtropical biogeographic rocky shore intertidal ecosystems, respectively. Stable isotopes (δ15N and δ13C), metals and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were measured in 38 intertidal components to study biomagnification or biodilution of metals and OCPs in these marine food webs. Comparison of the four species common to both sites revealed that the highest Al, Fe and OCP concentrations were measured in intertidal organisms from Sheffield Beach and was attributed to diffuse input into the nearshore marine environment sources via estuaries and groundwater. All other metals were higher in intertidal organisms from Tsitsikamma and were attributed to the metal-rich phytoplankton blooms during upwelling events. There was no correlation between metal and OCP accumulation and dietary source (δ13C) or trophic level (δ15N). The application of trophic magnification factors (TMFs) using a relatively short benthic food chain indicated biomagnification for As, Cd, Cu, Se and Zn and biodilution of OCPs at both sites. Since these food chains represent only a small portion of the intertidal ecosystems we found limited evidence of biomagnification or biodilution of metals and OCPs across species. This was attributed to different dietary sources in the same food web and similar trophic levels being occupied by the same species in different food chains. We found that food web composition rather than temperature-based biogeographical distribution influenced trophic transfer of metals and OCPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Erasmus
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa.
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Shouta M M Nakayama
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Nico J Smit
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
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13
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English MD, Robertson GJ, O’Driscoll NJ, Klapstein SJ, Peck LE, Mallory ML. Variation in isotopic niche, digestive tract morphology, and mercury concentrations in two sympatric waterfowl species wintering in Atlantic Canada. Facets (Ott) 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/facets-2019-0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Sympatric communities of organisms may exploit different ecological niches to avoid intra- and interspecific competition. We examined the isotopic niches of American black ducks ( Anas rubripes) and mallards ( A. platyrhynchos) wintering in coastal and urban areas of Atlantic Canada and compared isotopic niche with digestive tract morphologies and blood mercury (Hg) concentrations. Isotopic niche width (for δ13C and δ15N) varied between the three groups of ducks studied, with coastally foraging black ducks exhibiting the widest isotopic niche, followed by coastal mallards, while urban feeding black ducks had a narrow isotopic niche. These niche differences had physical and chemical consequences: coastal black ducks had longer digestive tracts, a larger range in gizzard sizes, and higher and more variable Hg concentrations than urban black ducks and coastal mallards. This plasticity in ecological niche may reduce competition among and within species, and subsequently explain why winter numbers of black ducks and mallards have increased in Atlantic Canada.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory J. Robertson
- Wildlife Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 6 Bruce Street, Mount Pearl, NL A1N 4T3, Canada
| | - Nelson J. O’Driscoll
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Sara J. Klapstein
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Liam E. Peck
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Mark L. Mallory
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
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14
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Soriano-Ursúa MA, Farfán-García ED, Geninatti-Crich S. Turning fear of boron toxicity into boron-containing drug design. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:5005-5018. [PMID: 30919770 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190327154954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the historical employment of boron-containing compounds (BCCs) with medicinal purposes, the reported cases of BCC toxicity in humans during the twentieth century were driving us towards an "boron-withdrawal" period. Fortunately, the use of boric acid for specific purposes remains, and the discovery of natural BCCs with biological action attractive for therapeutic purposes as well as the introduction of some new BCCs for clinical use have reactivated the interest in studying the properties of these BCCs. METHODS We carried out a structured search of bibliographic databases for scientific peer-reviewed research literature regarding boron toxicity and linked that information to that about BCCs in drug design and development. A deductive qualitative content analysis methodology was applied to analyse the interventions and findings of the included studies using a theoretical outline. RESULTS This review recapitulates the following on a timeline: the boron uses in medicine, the data known about the toxicological profiles of some BCCs, the pharmacological properties of some BCCs that are employed in cancer and infectious disease therapies, and the known properties of BCCs recently introduced into clinical assays as well as the identification of their structure-activity relationships for toxicity and therapeutic use. Then, we discuss the use of new approaches taking advantage of some toxicological data to identify potent and efficient BCCs for prevention and therapy while limiting their toxic effects. CONCLUSION Data for boron toxicity can be strategically used for boron-containing drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Antonio Soriano-Ursúa
- Departamentos de Fisiología, Bioquímica y Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación. Escuela Superior de Medicina. Plan de San Luis y Diaz Mirón s/n, 11340, México City. Mexico
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15
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Yang Z, Shah K, Crevier C, Laforest S, Lambert P, Hollebone BP, Yang C, Brown CE, Landriault M, Goldthorp M. Occurrence, source and ecological assessment of petroleum related hydrocarbons in intertidal marine sediments of the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 133:799-807. [PMID: 30041379 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), n-alkanes, petroleum-related biomarkers of terpanes and steranes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analyzed in the intertidal sediments in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia/New Brunswick, Canada. Sites close to the harbour and more densely populated areas had higher TPH levels than other pristine areas. n-Alkanes presented a typical single bell-shape in n-C16 to n-C35 range and an obvious odd to even carbon preference. Most sites had trace amounts of petroleum biomarkers. Abundant non-alkylated PAHs and lower amounts of alkylated PAHs represented the major input of the incomplete combustion of solid (e.g., coal, coke, biomass, and coal tar) and liquid fuels. The toxicity estimation for PAHs indicates that they did not have potential toxicity to benthic organisms at most sampling sites. However, possible to probable negative effects from the measured PAH concentrations were found for the two samples from Courtenay Bay and Saint Andrews.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeyu Yang
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
| | - Keval Shah
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Charlotte Crevier
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Sonia Laforest
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Patrick Lambert
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Bruce P Hollebone
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Chun Yang
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Carl E Brown
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Mike Landriault
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Michael Goldthorp
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section (ESTS), Environment & Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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16
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Mallory ML, O'Driscoll NJ, Klapstein S, Varela JL, Ceapa C, Stokesbury MJ. Methylmercury in tissues of Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus) from the Saint John River, New Brunswick, Canada. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 126:250-254. [PMID: 29421095 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Environmental contamination by mercury is a concern in marine food webs, and especially for large fish. We examined methylmercury (MeHg) levels in blood, muscle and liver of 35 individual Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus), a commercially harvested, anadromous fish eastern Canada. Females had higher blood and liver MeHg levels than males, and in some tissues there was a suggestion of higher mercury in longer fish. Collectively, sturgeon MeHg levels were far below Canadian and international guidelines for safe consumption of fish meat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark L Mallory
- Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada.
| | - Nelson J O'Driscoll
- Earth & Environmental Science, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Sara Klapstein
- Earth & Environmental Science, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | | | - Cornell Ceapa
- Acadian Sturgeon and Caviar Ltd., 30 Carters Wharf Road, Carters Point, New Brunswick E5S 1S5, Canada
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17
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English MD, Robertson GJ, Peck LE, Mallory ML. Agricultural food resources and the foraging ecologies of American black ducks (Anas rubripes) and mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) at the northern limits of their winter ranges. Urban Ecosyst 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-017-0683-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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18
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Pratte I, Boadway KA, Davis SE, Maftei M, Mallory ML. Diet dichotomy between two migrant seabirds breeding near a high Arctic polynya. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:160982. [PMID: 28405388 PMCID: PMC5383845 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
High Arctic polynyas are predictable areas of open water, which offer long-distance migrant seabirds a reliable source of food during a period when they have to replenish and accumulate energy for reproduction. Investigating the interaction between species nesting sympatrically in the vicinity of polynyas should provide insights into the role that such oceanographic features play for pre-breeding seabirds. We used stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N) to compare the diet of two ground-nesting seabirds, Sabine's gull (Xema sabini) and Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea), nesting on an island adjacent to a recurring polynya in the Canadian high Arctic in 2008 and 2009. We show that, unlike Arctic terns, the diet of Sabine's gulls appears to include a non-negligible amount of terrestrially derived prey during early incubation, and that overall both species segregate their dietary niche during pre-laying and early incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabeau Pratte
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, 15 University Drive, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, CanadaB4P 2R6
- High Arctic Gull Research Group, 109 Kings Road, Bamfield, British Columbia, CanadaV0R 1B0
| | - Kelly A. Boadway
- High Arctic Gull Research Group, 109 Kings Road, Bamfield, British Columbia, CanadaV0R 1B0
| | - Shanti E. Davis
- High Arctic Gull Research Group, 109 Kings Road, Bamfield, British Columbia, CanadaV0R 1B0
| | - Mark Maftei
- High Arctic Gull Research Group, 109 Kings Road, Bamfield, British Columbia, CanadaV0R 1B0
| | - Mark L. Mallory
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, 15 University Drive, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, CanadaB4P 2R6
- High Arctic Gull Research Group, 109 Kings Road, Bamfield, British Columbia, CanadaV0R 1B0
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