Fungi and biochar applications in bioremediation of organic micropollutants from aquatic media

Structure-activity relationship of self-immobilized mycelial pellets and their functions in wastewater treatment

Mycelial pellets (MPs) represent an emerging class of eco-friendly, self-immobilized bioactive materials characterized by high biological activity, superior porous structure, and unique biocompatibility. Based on structure-activity relationships, this paper reviews MPs' applications, mechanisms, and advantages in wastewater treatment, while updating fundamental theories on their production optimization, structure characteristics, and surface properties. Emphasis is placed on MPs' three principal functions in remediating pollution: biodegradation via high biological activity, adsorption through porous aggregated structure and superior surface features, and bio-carrier role based on the three-dimensional carbonaceous skeleton. Furthermore, the multifunctionality of MPs improves sludge settleability and dewaterability, as well as enhances aerobic granular sludge granulation and structural stability. Future research priorities include scalable low-cost production, mechanical reinforcement strategies, development of engineered strains and composites, and safe disposal of pollutant-laden MPs. This work provides valuable insights into the use of MPs in wastewater treatment and identifies critical directions for advancing MPs technology.

Resource recovery and treatment of wastewaters using filamentous fungi

Industrial wastewater, often characterized by its proximity to neutral pH, presents a promising opportunity for fungal utilization despite the prevalent preference of fungi for acidic conditions. This review addresses this discrepancy, highlighting the potential of certain industrial wastewaters, particularly those with low pH levels, for fungal biorefinery. Additionally, the economic implications of biomass recovery and compound separation, factors that require explicit were emphasized. Through an in-depth analysis of various industrial sectors, including food processing, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and paper-pulp, this study explores how filamentous fungi can effectively harness the nutrient-rich content of wastewaters to produce valuable resources. The pivotal role of ligninolytic enzymes synthesized by fungi in wastewater purification is examined, as well as their ability to absorb metal contaminants. Furthermore, the diverse benefits of fungal biorefinery are underscored, including the production of protein-rich single-cell protein, biolipids, enzymes, and organic acids, which not only enhance environmental sustainability but also foster economic growth. Finally, the challenges associated with scaling up fungal biorefinery processes for wastewater treatment are critically evaluated, providing valuable insights for future research and industrial implementation. This comprehensive analysis aims to elucidate the potential of fungal biorefinery in addressing industrial wastewater challenges while promoting sustainable resource utilization.

Synthesis of magnetic chitosan-composite biochar and its removal of copper ions (Cu2+) and methylene blue (MB) dye from aqueous solutions

This study presents the synthesis and evaluation of a magnetic chitosan-modified biochar (M-BC-CS) composite, developed from waste maize straw, for the efficient removal of copper ions (Cu2+) and methylene blue (MB) dye from aqueous solutions. The composite was characterized using advanced techniques such as SEM, BET, FTIR, XPS, and XRD, confirming its enhanced surface area, porosity, and magnetic properties. The study is aimed at investigating the optimal conditions for adsorption of Cu2+ and MB by M-BC-CS through analysis of the influence of diverse adsorbent dosages, pH levels, reaction times, and initial solution concentrations. The findings demonstrated that the equilibrium duration for the adsorption of Cu2+ and MB by M-BC-CS was 60 min, resulting in corresponding equilibrium adsorption quantities of 54.42 mg/g and 67.23 mg/g, respectively. To elucidate the adsorption mechanism, the present investigation applied the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir isotherm. The outcomes suggested that the adsorption process is attributable to single molecular layer chemisorption. XPS and FTIR analysis determined that ion exchange and electrostatic interactions are the predominant mechanisms responsible for the simultaneous adsorption of Cu2+ and MB, and a competitive relationship exists between these mechanisms. In addition, M-BC-CS exhibited exceptional magnetic separation performance, enabling effortless and effective separation when exposed to an external magnetic field. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that M-BC-CS has good reusability and high adsorption capacity also in real wastewater, thus emphasizing its potential as a promising adsorbent for the elimination of Cu2+ and MB from aqueous solutions.

Fabrication of engineered biochar for remediation of toxic contaminants in soil matrices and soil valorization

Biochar has emerged as an efficacious green material for remediation of a wide spectrum of environmental pollutants. Biochar has excellent characteristics and can be used to reduce the bioavailability and leachability of emerging pollutants in soil through adsorption and other physico-chemical reactions. This paper systematically reviewed previous researches on application of biochar/engineered biochar for removal of soil contaminants, and underlying adsorption mechanism. Engineered biochar are derivatives of pristine biochar that are modified by various physico-chemical and biological procedures to improve their adsorption capacities for contaminants. This review will promote the possibility to expand the application of biochar for restoration of degraded lands in the industrial area or saline soil, and further increase the useable area. This review shows that application of biochar is a win-win strategy for recycling and utilization of waste biomass and environmental remediation. Application of biochar for remediation of contaminated soils may provide a new solution to the problem of soil pollution. However, these studies were performed mainly in a laboratory or a small scale, hence, further investigations are required to fill the research gaps and to check real-time applicability of engineered biochar on the industrial contaminated sites for its large-scale application.

Efficient bioremediation of indigo-dye contaminated textile wastewater using native microorganisms and combined bioaugmentation-biostimulation techniques

In this work, the bioremediation of wastewater from the textile industry with indigo dye content was carried out using combined bioaugmentation, bioventilation, and biostimulation techniques. Initially, the inoculum was prepared by isolating the microorganisms from the textile wastewater in a 2 L bioreactor. Then, the respirometry technique was implemented to determine the affinity of the microorganisms and the substrate by measuring CO2 and allowed the formulation of an empirical mathematical model for the growth kinetics of the microorganism. Finally, the bioremediation was carried out in a 3 L bioreactor obtaining an indigo dye removal efficiency of 20.7 ± 1.2%, 24.0 ± 1.5%, and 29.7 ± 1.1% for equivalent wavelengths of 436 nm, 525 nm, and 620 nm. The chemical oxygen demand showed an average reduction of 88.9 ± 2.5%, going from 470.7 ± 15.6 to 52.3 ± 10.7 ppm after 30 days under constant agitation and aeration. A negative generalized exponential model was fitted to assess the affinity of the microorganism with the wastewater as a substrate by evaluating the production of CO2 during the bioremediation. Bioremediation techniques improve water discharge parameters compared to chemical treatments implemented in the industry, reducing the use of substances that can generate secondary pollution. Bioaugmentation, biostimulation, and bioventing of the textile wastewater in this study demonstrate the potential of these combined techniques to serve as an efficient alternative for indigo-contaminated wastewater in the textile industry.

Waste derived modified biochar as promising functional material for enhanced water remediation potential

The waste management and water purification are daunting environmental challenges. Biochar, a carbonaceous material prepared from diverse organic waste (agricultural, household residues and municipal sewage sludge) has garnered substantial attention due to its excellent attributes, including carbon content, cation exchange efficacy, ample specific surface area, and structural robustness. Thus, the present review comprehensively analyzes bio waste-derived biochar with a particular emphasis on water remediation applications. This article primarily delves into various strategies for modifying biochar, elucidating the underlying mechanisms behind these modifications and their potential for bolstering pollutant removal efficiency. Furthermore, it addresses the impact of functionalization on both biochar stability and cost for commercialization. Lastly, the article outlines key developments, SWOT analysis, and future prospects, offering insights into the practical execution of biochar applications at a larger scale. Therefore, this article paves the way for future research to deepen the understanding of modified biochar with mechanisms for exploring water remediation applications in a more sustainable manner.

Insights into effects of operating temperature on the removal of pharmaceuticals/pesticides/synthetic organic compounds by membrane bioreactor process

In this study, the removal efficiency and mechanism of 8 kinds of typical micropollutants by membrane bioreactor (MBR) at different temperatures (i.e. 15, 25 and 35 °C) were investigated. MBR exhibited the high removal rate (>85%) for 3 kinds of industrial synthetic organic micropollutants (i.e. bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (TB) and 4-n-nonylphenol (NP)) with similar functional groups, structures and high hydrophobicity (Log D > 3.2). However, the removal rates of ibuprofen (IBU), carbamazepine (CBZ) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) with pharmaceutical activity showed great discrepancy (i.e. 93%, 14.2% and 29%, respectively), while that of pesticides (i.e. acetochlor (Ac) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) were both lower than 10%. The results showed that the operating temperature played a significant role in microbial growth and activities. High temperature (35 °C) led to a decreased removal efficiency for most of hydrophobic organic micropollutants, and was also not conducive for refractory CBZ due to the temperature sensitivity. At lower temperature (15 °C), a large amount of exopolysaccharides and proteins were released by microorganisms, which caused the inhibited microbial activity, poor flocculation and sedimentation, resulting in the polysaccharide-type membrane fouling. It was proved that dominant microbial degradation of 61.01%-92.73% and auxiliary adsorption of 5.29%-28.30% were the main mechanisms for micropollutant removal in MBR system except for pesticides due to the toxicity. Therefore, the removal rates of most micropollutants were highest at 25 °C due to the high activity sludge so as to enhance microbial adsorption and degradation.

Endophytic fungus from Handroanthus impetiginosus immobilized on electrospun nanofibrous membrane for bioremoval of bisphenol A

The current industrial and human activities scenario has accelerated the widespread use of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), which can be found in everyday products, including plastic containers, bottles, toys, cosmetics, etc., but can pose a severe risk to human health and the environment. In this regard, fungal bioremediation appears as a green and cost-effective approach to removing pollutants from water resources. Besides, immobilizing fungal cells onto nanofibrous membranes appears as an innovative strategy to improve remediation performance by allowing the adsorption and degradation to occur simultaneously. Herein, we developed a novel nanostructured bioremediation platform based on polyacrylonitrile nanofibrous membrane (PAN NFM) as supporting material for immobilizing an endophytic fungus to remove bisphenol A (BPA), a typical EDC. The endophytic strain was isolated from Handroanthus impetiginosus leaves and identified as Phanerochaete sp. H2 by molecular methods. The successful assembly of fungus onto the PAN NFM surface was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Compared with free fungus cells, the PAN@H2 NFM displayed a high BPA removal efficiency (above 85%) at an initial concentration of 5 ppm, suggesting synergistic removal by simultaneous adsorption and biotransformation. Moreover, the biotransformation pathway was investigated, and the chemical structures of fungal metabolites of BPA were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography - high-resolution mass (UHPLC-HRMS) analysis. In general, our results suggest that by combining the advantages of enzymatic activity and nanofibrous structure, the novel platform has the potential to be applied in the bioremediation of varied EDCs or even other pollutants found in water resources.

Enhanced bioremediation performance of diesel-contaminated soil by immobilized composite fungi on rice husk biochar

In response to the low removal capacity and poor tolerance of fungi to diesel-contaminated soil, a novel immobilization system using biochar to enhance composite fungi was proposed. Rice husk biochar (RHB) and sodium alginate (SA) were used as immobilization matrices for composite fungi, and the adsorption system (CFI-RHB) and the encapsulation system (CFI-RHB/SA) were obtained. CFI-RHB/SA exhibited the highest diesel removal efficiency (64.10%) in high diesel-contaminated soil over a 60-day remediation period compared to the free composite fungi (42.70%) and CFI-RHB (49.13%). SEM demonstrated that the composite fungi were confirmed to be well attached to the matrix in both CFI-RHB and CFI-RHB/SA. FTIR analysis revealed the appearance of new vibration peaks in diesel-contaminated soil remediated by immobilized microorganisms, demonstrating changes in the molecular structure of diesel before and after degradation. Furthermore, CFI-RHB/SA maintains a stable removal efficiency (>60%) in higher concentrations of diesel-contaminated soil. High-throughput sequencing results indicated that Fusarium and Penicillium played a key role in the removal of diesel contaminants. Meanwhile, both dominant genera were negatively correlated with diesel concentration. The addition of exogenous fungi stimulated the enrichment of functional fungi. The insights gained from experiment and theory help to provide a new understanding of immobilization techniques of composite fungi and the evolution of fungal community structure.

More effective application of biochar-based immobilization technology in the environment: Understanding the role of biochar

In recent years, biochar-based immobilization technology (BIT) has been widely used to treat different environmental issues because of its cost-effectiveness and high removal performance. However, the complexity of the real environment is always ignored, which hinders the transfer of the BIT from lab-scale to commercial applications. Therefore, in this review, the analysis is performed separately on the internal side of the BIT (microbial fixation and growth) and on the external side of the BIT (function) to achieve effective BIT performance. Importantly, the internal two stages of BIT have been discussed concisely. Further, the usage of BIT in different areas is summarized precisely. Notably, the key impacts were systemically analyzed during BIT applications including environmental conditions and biochar types. Finally, the suggestions and perspectives are elucidated to solve current issues regarding BIT.

Treatment of amoxicillin-containing wastewater by Trichoderma strains selected from activated sludge

This study screened a Trichoderma strain (Trichoderma pubescens DAOM 166162) from activated sludge to solve the limitation of traditional biological processes in the treatment of amoxicillin (AMO) containing wastewater. The mechanism of the removal of AMO wastewater by T. pubescens DAOM 166162 (TPC) was studied. AMO resulted in a higher protein percentage in the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) secreted by TPC, which facilitated the removal of AMO from the wastewater. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and excitation-emission matrix were used to characterize EPS produced by metabolizing different carbon sources. It was found that the hydroxyl group was the primary functional group in EPS. The life activity of TPC was the cause of the pH rise. The main pathway of degradation of AMO by TPC was the hydroxyl group uncoupling the lactam ring and the hydrolysis of AMO in an alkaline environment. The removal efficiency of AMO in wastewater by TPC was >98 % (24 h), of which the biodegradation efficiency was 70.01 ± 1.48 %, and the biosorption efficiency was 28.44 ± 2.97 %. In general, TPC is an effective strain for treating wastewater containing AMO. This research provides a new idea for AMO wastewater treatment.

Trichoderma asperellum L. Coupled the Effects of Biochar to Enhance the Growth and Physiology of Contrasting Maize Cultivars under Copper and Nickel Stresses

Crop cultivation in heavy metal (HM)-polluted soils is a routine practice in developing countries that causes multiple human health consequences. Hence, two independent studies have been performed to investigate the efficiency of rice husk biochar (BC) and three fungal species, Trichoderma harzianum (F1), Trichoderma asperellum (F2) and Trichoderma viride (F3), to improve the growth and physiology of Zea mays L. plants grown on soil contaminated with Cu and Ni. Initially, a biosorption trial was conducted to test the HM removal efficiency of species F1, F2 and F3. Among them, F2 sp. showed the maximum Cu and Ni removal efficiency. Then, a pot study was conducted with two cultivars (spring corn and footer corn) having eleven treatments with three replicates. The results demonstrated a significant genotypic variation among both cultivars under applied HM stress. The maximum decreases in leaf Chl a. (53%), Chl b. (84%) and protein (63%) were reported in footer corn with applied Cu stress. The combined application of biochar and F2 increased leaf CAT (96%) in spring corn relative to Cu stress. Altogether, it was found that BC + F2 treatment showed the maximum efficiency in combatting Cu and Ni stress in spring corn.

Biochar application for remediation of organic toxic pollutants in contaminated soils; An update

Bioremediation of organic contaminants has become a major environmental concern in the last few years, due to its bio-resistance and potential to accumulate in the environment. The use of diverse technologies, involving chemical and physical principles, and passive uptake utilizing sorption using ecofriendly substrates have drawn a lot of interest. Biochar has got attention mainly due to its simplicity of manufacturing, treatment, and disposal, as it is a less expensive and more efficient material, and has a lot of potential for the remediation of organic contaminants. This review highlighted the adverse impact of persistent organic pollutants on the environment and soil biota. The utilization of biochar to remediate soil and contaminated compounds i.e., pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, antibiotics, and organic dyes has also been discussed. The soil application of biochar has a significant impact on the biodegradation, leaching, and sorption/desorption of organic contaminants. The sorption/desorption of organic contaminants is influenced by chemical composition and structure, porosity, surface area, pH, and elemental ratios, and surface functional groups of biochar. All the above biochar characteristics depend on the type of feedstock and pyrolysis conditions. However, the concentration and nature of organic pollutants significantly alters the sorption capability of biochar. Therefore, the physicochemical properties of biochar and soils/wastewater, and the nature of organic contaminants, should be evaluated before biochar application to soil and wastewater. Future initiatives, however, are needed to develop biochars with better adsorption capacity, and long-term sustainability for use in the xenobiotic/organic contaminant remediation strategy.

The potential of biochar-photocatalytic nanocomposites for removal of organic micropollutants from wastewater

Biochar (BC)-photocatalyst nanocomposites have emerged as appealing water and wastewater treatment technology. Such nanocomposite materials benefit from the synergistic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis to attain improved removal of pollutants from water and wastewater. Under this review, three BC-based nanocomposite photocatalysts such as BC-TiO₂, BC-ZnO, and BC-spinel ferrites were considered. These nanocomposites acquire intrinsic properties to improve the practical limitations of the pristine BC and photocatalysts. The BC-based nanocomposites attained high photocatalytic activity, mechanical hardness, thermal stability, chemically non-reactive, magnetically permeable, reduced energy band gaps, improved reusability, and simplified recovery. Moreover, BC-based photocatalytic nanocomposites showed reduced recombination rates of the electron-hole pairs which are desirable for photocatalytic applications. However, the surface areas of the composites are usually smaller than that of the BC but higher than those of the pristine photocatalysts. Practically, the performances of the nanocomposites are much superior to those of the corresponding pristine components. This hybrid treatment technology is an emerging field and its industrial application is still at an early stage of the investigation. Therefore, exploring the full potential and practical applications of this technology is highly encouraging. Hence, this review focused on the critical evaluation of the most recent research on the synthesis, characterization, and photocatalytic treatment efficiency of the BC photocatalyst nanocomposites towards emerging pollutants in the aqueous medium. Moreover, the influence of various sources of BC feedstocks and their limitations on adsorption and photodegradation activities are discussed in detail. Finally, concluding remarks and future research directions are given to assist and shape the exploration of BC-based nanocomposite photocatalysts in water treatment.

Bioremediation of 27 Micropollutants by Symbiotic Microorganisms of Wetland Macrophytes

Background: Micropollutants in bodies of water represent many challenges. We addressed these challenges by the application of constructed wetlands, which represent advanced treatment technology for the removal of micropollutants from water. However, which mechanisms specifically contribute to the removal efficiency often remains unclear. Methods: Here, we focus on the removal of 27 micropollutants by bioremediation. For this, macrophytes Phragmites australis, Iris pseudacorus and Lythrum salicaria were taken from established wetlands, and a special experimental set-up was designed. In order to better understand the impact of the rhizosphere microbiome, we determined the microbial composition using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and investigated the role of identified genera in the micropollutant removal of micropollutants. Moreover, we studied the colonization of macrophyte roots by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which are known for their symbiotic relationship with plants. This symbiosis could result in increased removal of present micropollutants. Results: We found Iris pseudacorus to be the most successful bioremediative system, as it removed 22 compounds, including persistent ones, with more than 80% efficiency. The most abundant genera that contributed to the removal of micropollutants were Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Variovorax, Methylotenera, Reyranella, Amaricoccus and Hydrogenophaga. Iris pseudacorus exhibited the highest colonization rate (56%). Conclusions: Our experiments demonstrate the positive impact of rhizosphere microorganisms on the removal of micropollutants.

Microbial associations for bioremediation. What does "microbial consortia" mean?

Microbial associations arise as useful tools in several biotechnological processes. Among them, bioremediation of contaminated environments usually takes advantage of these microbial associations. Despite being frequently used, these associations are indicated using a variety of expressions, showing a lack of consensus by specialists in the field. The main idea of this work is to analyze the variety of microbial associations referred to as "microbial consortia" (MC) in the context of pollutants biodegradation and bioremediation. To do that, we summarize the origin of the term pointing out the features that an MC is expected to meet, according to the opinion of several authors. An analysis of related bibliography was done seeking criteria to rationalize and classify MC in the context of bioremediation. We identify that the microbe's origin and the level of human intervention are usually considered as a category to classify them as natural microbial consortia (NMC), artificial microbial consortia (AMC), and synthetic microbial consortia (SMC). In this sense, NMC are those associations composed by microorganisms obtained from a single source while AMC members come from different sources. SMC are a class of AMC in which microbial composition is defined to accomplish a certain specific task. We propose that the effective or potential existence of the interaction among MC members in the source material should be considered as a category in the classification as well, in combination with the origin of the source and level of intervention. Cross-kingdom MC and new developments were also considered. Finally, the existence of grey zones in the limits between each proposed microbial consortia category is addressed. KEY POINTS: • Microbial consortia for bioremediation can be obtained through different methods. • The use of the term "microbial consortia" is unclear in the specialized literature. • We propose a simplified classification for microbial consortia for bioremediation.

Mixed bacteria-loaded biochar for the immobilization of arsenic, lead, and cadmium in a polluted soil system: Effects and mechanisms

The present study explored the immobilization of mixed bacteria-loaded biochar on As, Pb, and Cd was explored. Physisorption and sodium alginate encapsulation were used to synthesize two kinds of mixed bacteria-loaded biochars, referred to as BCM and BCB. The observations of Scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy distinctly demonstrated the colonization of mixed bacteria on biochar. Besides, the addition of BCM and BCB could increase soil pH with increasing incubation time. The residual fraction of heavy metals and soil dehydrogenase activities were also enhanced after 28 days of incubation. Pb was mainly immobilized by co-precipitation, which meant that Pb could be converted into a consistent crystalline form such as Pb₅(PO₄)₃OH. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analyses of materials identified the formation of Ca₂As₂O₇ and the presence of oxidation from trivalent arsenic to pentavalent arsenic. Cd was adsorbed by forming precipitations (CdCO₃) and exchanging ions with the BCM and BCB. Synergistic reactions between anions and cations also contributed to the immobilization of heavy metals, such as the formation of PbAs₂O₆ and Cd₃(AsO₄)₂. These results confirmed that mixed bacteria-loaded biochar was a feasible technology for the remediation of heavy metals contamination in site soils.

Recent Advances on Innovative Materials from Biowaste Recycling for the Removal of Environmental Estrogens from Water and Soil

New technologies have been developed around the world to tackle current emergencies such as biowaste recycling, renewable energy production and reduction of environmental pollution. The thermochemical and biological conversions of waste biomass for bioenergy production release solid coproducts and byproducts, namely biochar (BC), hydrochar (HC) and digestate (DG), which can have important environmental and agricultural applications. Due to their physicochemical properties, these carbon-rich materials can behave as biosorbents of contaminants and be used for both wastewater treatment and soil remediation, representing a valid alternative to more expensive products and sophisticated strategies. The alkylphenols bisphenol A, octylphenol and nonylphenol possess estrogenic activity comparable to that of the human steroid hormones estrone, 17β-estradiol (and synthetic analog 17α-ethinyl estradiol) and estriol. Their ubiquitous presence in ecosystems poses a serious threat to wildlife and humans. Conventional wastewater treatment plants often fail to remove environmental estrogens (EEs). This review aims to focus attention on the urgent need to limit the presence of EEs in the environment through a modern and sustainable approach based on the use of recycled biowaste. Materials such as BC, HC and DG, the last being examined here for the first time as a biosorbent, appear appropriate for the removal of EEs both for their negligible cost and continuously improving performance and because their production contributes to solving other emergencies, such as virtuous management of organic waste, carbon sequestration, bioenergy production and implementation of the circular economy. Characterization of biosorbents, qualitative and quantitative aspects of the adsorption/desorption process and data modeling are examined.

Recent Developments in the Immobilization of Laccase on Carbonaceous Supports for Environmental Applications - A Critical Review

Τhe ligninolytic enzyme laccase has proved its potential for environmental applications. However, there is no documented industrial application of free laccase due to low stability, poor reusability, and high costs. Immobilization has been considered as a powerful technique to enhance laccase's industrial potential. In this technology, appropriate support selection for laccase immobilization is a crucial step since the support could broadly affect the properties of the resulting catalyst system. Through the last decades, a large variety of inorganic, organic, and composite materials have been used in laccase immobilization. Among them, carbon-based materials have been explored as a support candidate for immobilization, due to their properties such as high porosity, high surface area, the existence of functional groups, and their highly aromatic structure. Carbon-based materials have also been used in culture media as supports, sources of nutrients, and inducers, for laccase production. This study aims to review the recent trends in laccase production, immobilization techniques, and essential support properties for enzyme immobilization. More specifically, this review analyzes and presents the significant benefits of carbon-based materials for their key role in laccase production and immobilization.