Cilostazol improves the response to ischemia in diabetic mice by a mechanism dependent on PPARγ

Exercise and Ischemia-Activated Pathways in Limb Muscle Angiogenesis and Vascular Regeneration

Exercise has a profound effect on cardiovascular disease, particularly through vascular remodeling and regeneration. Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is one such cardiovascular condition that benefits from regular exercise or rehabilitative physical therapy in terms of slowing the progression of disease and delaying amputations. Various rodent pre-clinical studies using models of PAD and exercise have shed light on molecular pathways of vascular regeneration. Here, I review key exercise-activated signaling pathways (nuclear receptors, kinases, and hypoxia inducible factors) in the skeletal muscle that drive paracrine regenerative angiogenesis. The rationale for highlighting the skeletal muscle is that it is the largest organ recruited during exercise. During exercise, skeletal muscle releases several myokines, including angiogenic factors and cytokines that drive tissue vascular regeneration via activation of endothelial cells, as well as by recruiting immune and endothelial progenitor cells. Some of these core exercise-activated pathways can be extrapolated to vascular regeneration in other organs. I also highlight future areas of exercise research (including metabolomics, single cell transcriptomics, and extracellular vesicle biology) to advance our understanding of how exercise induces vascular regeneration at the molecular level, and propose the idea of "exercise-mimicking" therapeutics for vascular recovery.

Current Medical Therapy and Revascularization in Peripheral Artery Disease of the Lower Limbs: Impacts on Subclinical Chronic Inflammation

Peripheral artery disease (PAD), coronary artery disease (CAD), and cerebrovascular disease (CeVD) are characterized by atherosclerosis and inflammation as their underlying mechanisms. This paper aims to conduct a literature review on pharmacotherapy for PAD, specifically focusing on how different drug classes target pro-inflammatory pathways. The goal is to enhance the choice of therapeutic plans by considering their impact on the chronic subclinical inflammation that is associated with PAD development and progression. We conducted a comprehensive review of currently published original articles, narratives, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses. The aim was to explore the relationship between PAD and inflammation and evaluate the influence of current pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions on the underlying chronic subclinical inflammation. Our findings indicate that the existing treatments have added anti-inflammatory properties that can potentially delay or prevent PAD progression and improve outcomes, independent of their effects on traditional risk factors. Although inflammation-targeted therapy in PAD shows promising potential, its benefits have not been definitively proven yet. However, it is crucial not to overlook the pleiotropic properties of the currently available treatments, as they may provide valuable insights for therapeutic strategies. Further studies focusing on the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of these treatments could enhance our understanding of the mechanisms contributing to the residual risk in PAD and pave the way for the development of novel therapies.

Nuclear receptors as potential therapeutic targets in peripheral arterial disease and related myopathy

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a prevalent cardiovascular complication of limb vascular insufficiency, causing ischemic injury, mitochondrial metabolic damage and functional impairment in the skeletal muscle, and ultimately leading to immobility and mortality. While potential therapies have been mostly focussed on revascularization, none of the currently available pharmacological treatments are fully effective in PAD, often leading to amputations, particularly in chronic metabolic diseases. One major limitation of focussed angiogenesis and revascularization as a therapeutic strategy is a limited effect on metabolic restoration and muscle regeneration in the affected limb. Therefore, additional preclinical investigations are needed to discover novel treatment options for PAD preferably targeting multiple aspects of muscle recovery. In this review, we propose nuclear receptors expressed in the skeletal muscle as potential candidates for ischemic muscle repair in PAD. We review classic steroid and orphan receptors that have been reported to be involved in the regulation of paracrine muscle angiogenesis, oxidative metabolism, mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle regeneration, and discuss how these receptors could be critical for recovery from ischemic muscle damage. Furthermore, we identify existing gaps in our understanding of nuclear receptor signalling in the skeletal muscle and propose future areas of research that could be instrumental in exploring nuclear receptors as therapeutic candidates for treating PAD.

Pharmacological Utility of PPAR Modulation for Angiogenesis in Cardiovascular Disease

Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors, including PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ, are ligand-activated transcription factors belonging to the nuclear receptor superfamily. They play important roles in glucose and lipid metabolism and are also supposed to reduce inflammation and atherosclerosis. All PPARs are involved in angiogenesis, a process critically involved in cardiovascular pathology. Synthetic specific agonists exist for all PPARs. PPARα agonists (fibrates) are used to treat dyslipidemia by decreasing triglyceride and increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. PPARγ agonists (thiazolidinediones) are used to treat Type 2 diabetes mellitus by improving insulin sensitivity. PPARα/γ (dual) agonists are supposed to treat both pathological conditions at once. In contrast, PPARβ/δ agonists are not in clinical use. Although activators of PPARs were initially considered to have favorable effects on the risk factors for cardiovascular disease, their cardiovascular safety is controversial. Here, we discuss the implications of PPARs in vascular biology regarding cardiac pathology and focus on the outcomes of clinical studies evaluating their benefits in cardiovascular diseases.

Inhibition of transient receptor potential cation channel 6 promotes capillary arterialization during post-ischaemic blood flow recovery

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Capillary arterialization, characterized by the coverage of pre-existing or nascent capillary vessels with vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), is critical for the development of collateral arterioles to improve post-ischaemic blood flow. We previously demonstrated that the inhibition of transient receptor potential 6 subfamily C, member 6 (TRPC6) channels facilitate contractile differentiation of VSMCs under ischaemic stress. We here investigated whether TRPC6 inhibition promotes post-ischaemic blood flow recovery through capillary arterialization in vivo.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Mice were subjected to hindlimb ischaemia by ligating left femoral artery. The recovery rate of peripheral blood flow was calculated by the ratio of ischaemic left leg to non-ischaemic right one. The number and diameter of blood vessels were analysed by immunohistochemistry. Expression and phosphorylation levels of TRPC6 proteins were determined by western blotting and immunohistochemistry.

KEY RESULTS

Although the post-ischaemic blood flow recovery is reportedly dependent on endothelium-dependent relaxing factors, systemic TRPC6 deletion significantly promoted blood flow recovery under the condition that nitric oxide or prostacyclin production were inhibited, accompanying capillary arterialization. Cilostazol, a clinically approved drug for peripheral arterial disease, facilitates blood flow recovery by inactivating TRPC6 via phosphorylation at Thr69 in VSMCs. Furthermore, inhibition of TRPC6 channel activity by pyrazole-2 (Pyr2; BTP2; YM-58483) promoted post-ischaemic blood flow recovery in Apolipoprotein E-knockout mice.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Suppression of TRPC6 channel activity in VSMCs could be a new strategy for the improvement of post-ischaemic peripheral blood circulation.

Effects of Cilostazol on Angiogenesis in Diabetes through Adiponectin/Adiponectin Receptors/Sirtuin1 Signaling Pathway

Cilostazol is an antiplatelet agent with vasodilating effects that functions by increasing the intracellular concentration of cyclic adenosine monophosphate. We have previously shown that cilostazol has favorable effects on angiogenesis. However, there is no study to evaluate the effects of cilostazol on adiponectin. We investigated the effects of cilostazol on angiogenesis in diabetes in vitro and in vivo through adiponectin/adiponectin receptors (adipoRs) and the sirtuin 1 (SIRT1)/AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs) were cocultured under high glucose (HG) conditions. Adiponectin concentrations in the supernatants were significantly increased when HASMCs were treated with cilostazol but not significantly changed when only HUVECs were treated with cilostazol. Cilostazol treatment enhanced the expression of SIRT1 and upregulated the phosphorylation of AMPK in HG-treated HUVECs. By sequential knockdown of adipoRs, SIRT1, and AMPK, our data demonstrated that cilostazol prevented apoptosis and stimulated proliferation, chemotactic motility, and capillary-like tube formation in HG-treated HUVECs through the adipoRs/SIRT1/AMPK signaling pathway. The phosphorylation of downstream signaling molecules, including acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), was downregulated when HUVECs were treated with a SIRT1 inhibitor. In streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice, cilostazol treatment could improve blood flow recovery 21-28 days after inducing hindlimb ischemia as well as increase the circulating of CD34⁺CD45^dim cells 14-21 days after operation; moreover, these effects were significantly attenuated by the knockdown of adipoR1 but not adipoR2. The expression of SIRT1 and phosphorylation of AMPK/ACC and Akt/eNOS in ischemic muscles were significantly attenuated by the gene knockdown of adipoRs. Cilostazol improves HG-induced endothelial dysfunction in vascular endothelial cells and enhances angiogenesis in diabetic mice by upregulating the expression of adiponectin/adipoRs and its SIRT1/AMPK downstream signaling pathway.

Principal predictors of major adverse limb events in diabetic peripheral artery disease: A narrative review

Background and aims

The increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus is causing a massive growth of peripheral artery disease incidences, a disabling complication of diabetic atherosclerosis, which leads often to the amputation of the affected limb. Critical limb ischemia is the terminal disease stage, which requires a prompt intervention to relieve pain and save limbs. However, patients undergoing revascularization often suffer from cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and major adverse limb events with poor outcomes. Furthermore, the same procedure performed in apparently similar patients has various outcomes and lack of an outcome predictive support causes a high lower limb arterial revascularization rate with disastrous effects for patients. We collected the main risk factors of major adverse limb events in a more readable and immediate format of the topic, to propose an overview of parameters to manage effectively peripheral artery disease patients and to propose basics of a new predictive tool to prevent from disabling vascular complications of the disease.

Methods

Most recent and updated literature about the prevalence of major adverse limb events in peripheral artery disease was reviewed to identify possible main predictors.

Results

In this article, we summarized major risk factors of limb revascularization failure and disabling vascular complications collecting those parameters principally responsible for major adverse limb events, which provides physio-pathological explanation of their role in peripheral artery disease.

Conclusion

We evaluated and listed a panel of possible predictors of MALE (Major Adverse Limb Event) in order to contribute to the development of a predictive score, based on a summary of the main risk factors reported in scientific articles, which could improve the management of peripheral artery disease by preventing vascular accidents.

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-Gamma (PPAR-ɣ): Molecular Effects and Its Importance as a Novel Therapeutic Target for Cerebral Ischemic Injury

Cerebral ischemic injury is a leading cause of death and long-term disability throughout the world. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-ɣ) is a ligand-activated nuclear transcription factor that is a member of the PPAR family. PPAR-ɣ has been shown in several in vitro and in vivo models to prevent post-ischemic inflammation and neuronal damage by negatively controlling the expression of genes modulated by cerebral ischemic injury, indicating a neuroprotective effect during cerebral ischemic injury. A extensive literature review of PubMed, Medline, Bentham, Scopus, and EMBASE (Elsevier) databases was carried out to understand the nature of the extensive work done on the mechanistic role of Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma and its modulation in Cerebral ischemic injury. PPAR-ɣ can interact with specific DNA response elements to control gene transcription and expression when triggered by its ligand. It regulates lipid metabolism, improves insulin sensitivity, modulates antitumor mechanisms, reduces oxidative stress, and inhibits inflammation. This review article provides insights on the current state of research into the neuroprotective effects of PPAR-ɣ in cerebral ischemic injury, as well as the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which these effects are modulated, such as inhibition of inflammation, reduction of oxidative stress, suppression of pro-apoptotic production, modulation of transcription factors, and restoration of injured tissue through neurogenesis and angiogenesis.

Association between carotid plaque vulnerability and high mobility group box-1 serum levels in a diabetic population

Background

Carotid atherosclerosis represents one of the complications of diabetes mellitus. In particular, plaque instability contributes to disease progression and stroke incidence. High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) is a nuclear protein involved in promotion and progression of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between HMGB1 serum levels, main inflammatory cytokines, the presence of internal carotid stenosis and unstable plaque in a diabetic population.

Research design and methods

We studied 873 diabetic patients, including 347 patients with internal carotid artery stenosis (ICAS) who underwent carotid endarterectomy and 526 diabetic patients without internal carotid artery stenosis (WICAS). At baseline, HMGB1 and the main inflammatory cytokines serum levels were evaluated. For ICAS patients, the histological features of carotid plaque were also collected to differentiate them in patients with stable or unstable atherosclerotic lesions.

Results

We found that HMGB1 serum levels, osteoprotegerin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6, were significantly higher in diabetic ICAS patients compared to diabetic WICAS patients. Among ICAS patients, individuals with unstable plaque had higher levels of these cytokines, compared to patients with stable plaque. A multivariable stepwise logistic regression analysis showed that HMGB1 and osteoprotegerin remained independently associated with unstable plaque in ICAS patients.

Conclusions

The present study demonstrated that HMGB1 is an independent risk factor for carotid plaque vulnerability in an Italian population with diabetes mellitus, representing a promising biomarker of carotid plaque instability and a possible molecular target to treat unstable carotid plaques and to prevent stroke.

Cilostazol mitigates mesenteric ischemia/reperfusion-induced lung lesion: Contribution of PPAR-γ, NF-κB, and STAT3 crosstalk

AIMS

Cilostazol (Cilo), a phosphodiesterase-III inhibitor, has signified its efficacy against different ischemia/reperfusion (IS/RE) models. Nevertheless, it has not fully illuminated its potential effect against intestinal IS/RE-induced lung injury. Consequently, the study was fashioned to evaluate the feasible mechanism of action of Cilo against intestinal IS/RE-induced lung injury.

MAIN METHODS

Wistar rats were treated with Cilo (0.1 g/kg, p.o.) or with a vehicle for 14 days prior to IS/RE, induced by clamping of the superior mesenteric artery for 30 min with subsequent clamp removal for 2 h.

KEY FINDINGS

The mechanistic study disclosed that Cilo protected the two studied organs, viz., lung, and intestine partially by intensifying the expression/content of PPAR-γ accompanied by reducing the expression/content of NF-қB-p65 and STAT3. In addition to normalizing MDA, iNOS, and NOx, the Cilo antioxidant power was confirmed by intensifying tissues content of the total antioxidant capacity. With regard to the anti-inflammatory effect, Cilo reduced the effects of TNF-α, IL-6, and ICAM-1, which were reflected in MPO activity. Furthermore, Cilo had an anti-apoptotic attribute demonstrated by enhancing Bcl-2 content and lessening caspase-3 level.

SIGNIFICANCE

Cilo provided conceivable protective mechanisms to modulate events concomitant with mesenteric IS/RE partly by modulating oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis feasibly via the participation of PPAR-γ, STAT3, and NF-κB p65 signaling pathways.

PPARs and Angiogenesis-Implications in Pathology

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) belong to the family of ligand-activated nuclear receptors. The PPAR family consists of three subtypes encoded by three separate genes: PPARα (NR1C1), PPARβ/δ (NR1C2), and PPARγ (NR1C3). PPARs are critical regulators of metabolism and exhibit tissue and cell type-specific expression patterns and functions. Specific PPAR ligands have been proposed as potential therapies for a variety of diseases such as metabolic syndrome, cancer, neurogenerative disorders, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, endometriosis, and retinopathies. In this review, we focus on the knowledge of PPAR function in angiogenesis, a complex process that plays important roles in numerous pathological conditions for which therapeutic use of PPAR modulation has been suggested.

Progress in the Mechanism and Clinical Application of Cilostazol

Cilostazol is a unique platelet inhibitor that has been used clinically for more than 20 years. As a phosphodiesterase type III inhibitor, cilostazol is capable of reversible inhibition of platelet aggregation and vasodilation, has antiproliferative effects, and is widely used in the treatment of peripheral arterial disease, cerebrovascular disease, percutaneous coronary intervention, etc. This article briefly reviews the pharmacological mechanisms and clinical application of cilostazol.

The angiogenic properties of human adipose-derived stem cells (HASCs) are modulated by the High mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1)

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD), is a major health problem. Many studies have been focused on the possibilities of treatment offered by vascular regeneration. Human adipose-derived stem cells (HASCs), multipotent CD34+ stem cells found in the stromal-vascular fraction of adipose tissues, which are capable to differentiate into multiple mesenchymal cell types. The High mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) is a nuclear protein involved in angiogenesis. The aim of the study was to define the role of HMGB1 in cell therapy with HASCs, in an animal model of PAD. We induced unilateral ischemia in mice and we treated them with HASCs, with the specific HMGB1-inihibitor BoxA, with HMGB1 protein, and with the specific VEGF inhibitor sFlt1, alternately or concurrently. We measured the blood flow recovery in all mice. Immunohistochemical and ELISA analyses was performed to evaluate the number of vessels and the VEGF tissue content. None auto-amputation occurred and there have been no rejection reactions to the administration of HASCs. Animals co-treated with HASCs and HMGB1 protein had an improved blood flow recovery, compared to HASCs-treated mice. The post-ischemic angiogenesis was reduced when the HMGB1 pathway was blocked or when the VEGF activity was inhibited, in mice co-treated with HASCs and HMGB1. In conclusion, the HASCs treatment can be used in a mouse model of PAD to induce post-ischemic angiogenesis, modulating angiogenesis by HMGB1. This effect is mediated by VEGF activity. Although further data are needed, these findings shed light on possible new cell treatments for patients with PAD.

Macro- and microvascular endothelial dysfunction in diabetes

Endothelial cells, as well as their major products nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin, play a key role in the regulation of vascular homeostasis. Diabetes mellitus is an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction is a critical and initiating factor in the genesis of diabetic vascular complications. The present review focuses on both large blood vessels and the microvasculature. The endothelial dysfunction in diabetic macrovascular complications is characterized by reduced NO bioavailability, poorly compensated for by increased production of prostacyclin and/or endothelium-dependent hyperpolarizations, and increased production or action of endothelium-derived vasoconstrictors. The endothelial dysfunction of microvascular complications is primarily characterized by decreased release of NO, enhanced oxidative stress, increased production of inflammatory factors, abnormal angiogenesis, and impaired endothelial repair. In addition, non-coding RNAs (microRNAs) have emerged as participating in numerous cellular processes. Thus, this reviews pays special attention to microRNAs and their modulatory role in diabetes-induced vascular dysfunction. Some therapeutic strategies for preventing and restoring diabetic endothelial dysfunction are also highlighted.

Development of Therapeutics That Induce Mitochondrial Biogenesis for the Treatment of Acute and Chronic Degenerative Diseases

Mitochondria have various roles in cellular metabolism and homeostasis. Because mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with many acute and chronic degenerative diseases, mitochondrial biogenesis (MB) is a therapeutic target for treating such diseases. Here, we review the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in acute and chronic degenerative diseases and the cellular signaling pathways by which MB is induced. We then review existing work describing the development and application of drugs that induce MB in vitro and in vivo. In particular, we discuss natural products and modulators of transcription factors, kinases, cyclic nucleotides, and G protein-coupled receptors.

Cilostazol Enhances Mobilization of Circulating Endothelial Progenitor Cells and Improves Endothelium-Dependent Function in Patients at High Risk of Cardiovascular Disease

This is the first study to investigate the vasculoangiogenic effects of cilostazol on endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). This double-blind, placebo-controlled study included 71 patients (37 received 200 mg/d cilostazol and 34 received placebo for 12 weeks). Use of cilostazol, but not placebo, significantly increased circulating EPC (kinase insert domain receptor+CD34+) counts (percentage changes: 149.0% [67.9%-497.8%] vs 71.9% [−31.8% to 236.5%], P = .024) and improved triglyceride and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels ( P = .002 and P = .003, respectively). Plasma levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A165 and FMD significantly increased (72.5% [32.9%-120.4%] vs −5.8% [−46.0% to 57.6%], P = .001; 232.8% ± 83.1% vs −46.9% ± 21.5%, P = .003, respectively) in cilostazol-treated patients. Changes in the plasma triglyceride levels significantly inversely correlated with the changes in the VEGF-A165 levels and FMD. Cilostazol significantly enhanced the mobilization of EPCs and improved endothelium-dependent function by modifying some metabolic and angiogenic markers in patients at high risk of CVD.

Expression of intraocular peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy

AIMS

To determine whether peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), which is recognized as a component of the exosomes circulating in plasma, is expressed intraocularly in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR).

METHODS

The concentrations of PPARγ and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the aqueous humor and vitreous of 50 eyes with PDR and 38 control eyes were determined by ELISA. The levels of the mRNA and protein of PPARγ were determined in proliferative membranes from 12 PDR and 5 control eyes by quantitative RT-PCR and immunohistochemical analyses.

RESULTS

PPARγ was detected in the culture media of human umbilical vein endothelial cells indicating that PPARγ can be released into the extracellular fluid. The PPARγ concentrations in the aqueous humor and vitreous fluid were significantly higher in PDR patients than in controls (P<0.0005). There was a significant positive correlation between the PPARγ and VEGF concentrations (P<0.0005). The level of PPARγ increased as the clinical stage advanced. The expressions of the mRNA and protein of PPARγ were higher in the membranes of PDR than those of controls. Anti-VEGF therapy significantly reduced the VEGF concentration (P<0.0001) but not the PPARγ concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

PPARγ may play an important role in the pathogenesis of PDR.

Time-course effect of electrical stimulation on nerve regeneration of diabetic rats

BACKGROUND

Electrical stimulation (ES) has been shown to promote nerve regeneration in rats with experimental diabetes induced using streptozotocin (STZ). However, the time-course effect of ES on nerve regeneration of diabetic animals has not been reported in previous studies. The present study attempted to examine the effect of different timing of ES after peripheral nerve transection in diabetic rats.

METHODOLOGY/FINDINGS

Fifty Sprague-Dawley rats were used in the study. They were classified into five groups. STZ-induced diabetes was created in groups A to D. Normal animals in group E were used as the non-diabetic controls. The sciatic nerve was transected and repaired using a silicone rubber conduit across a 10-mm gap in all groups. Groups A to C received ES for 15 minutes every other day for 2 weeks. Stimulation was initiated on day 1 following the nerve repair for group A, day 8 for group B, and day 15 for group C. The diabetic control group D and the normal control group E received no ES. At 30 days after surgery in group A, histological evaluations showed a higher success percentage of regeneration across the 10-mm nerve gap, and the electrophysiological results showed significantly larger mean values of evoked muscle action potential area and amplitude of the reinnervated gastrocnemius muscle compared with group D.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

It is concluded that an immediate onset of ES may improve the functional recovery of large nerve defect in diabetic animals.

PPARγ activation but not PPARγ haplodeficiency affects proangiogenic potential of endothelial cells and bone marrow-derived progenitors

Background

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) agonists, which have been used as insulin sensitizers in diabetic patients, may improve functions of endothelial cells (ECs). We investigated the effect of PPARγ on angiogenic activities of murine ECs and bone marrow-derived proangiogenic cells (PACs).

Methods

PACs were isolated from bone marrow of 10–12 weeks old, wild type, db/db and PPARγ heterozygous animals. Cells were cultured on fibronectin and gelatin coated dishes in EGM-2MV medium. For in vitro stimulations, rosiglitazone (10 μmol/L) or GW9662 (10 μmol/L) were added to 80% confluent cell cultures for 24 hours. Angiogenic potential of PACs and ECs was tested in vitro and in vivo in wound healing assay and hind limb ischemia model.

Results

ECs and PACs isolated from diabetic db/db mice displayed a reduced angiogenic potential in ex vivo and in vitro assays, the effect partially rescued by incubation of cells with rosiglitazone (PPARγ activator). Correction of diabetes by administration of rosiglitazone in vivo did not improve angiogenic potential of isolated PACs or ECs. In a hind limb ischemia model we demonstrated that local injection of conditioned media harvested from wild type PACs improved the blood flow restoration in db/db mice, confirming the importance of paracrine action of the bone marrow-derived cells.

Transcriptome analysis showed an upregulation of prooxidative and proinflammatory pathways, and downregulation of several proangiogenic genes in db/db PACs. Interestingly, db/db PACs had also a decreased level of PPARγ and changed expression of PPARγ-regulated genes. Using normoglycemic PPARγ^+/− mice we demonstrated that reduced expression of PPARγ does not influence neovascularization either in wound healing or in hind limb ischemia models.

Conclusions

In summary, activation of PPARγ by rosiglitazone improves angiogenic potential of diabetic ECs and PACs, but decreased expression of PPARγ in diabetes does not impair angiogenesis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12933-014-0150-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.