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Dischinger S, Miller DJ, Vermaas DA, Kingsbury RS. Unifying the Conversation: Membrane Separation Performance in Energy, Water, and Industrial Applications. ACS ES&T ENGINEERING 2024; 4:277-289. [PMID: 38357245 PMCID: PMC10862477 DOI: 10.1021/acsestengg.3c00475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Dense polymer membranes enable a diverse range of separations and clean energy technologies, including gas separation, water treatment, and renewable fuel production or conversion. The transport of small molecular and ionic solutes in the majority of these membranes is described by the same solution-diffusion mechanism, yet a comparison of membrane separation performance across applications is rare. A better understanding of how structure-property relationships and driving forces compare among applications would drive innovation in membrane development by identifying opportunities for cross-disciplinary knowledge transfer. Here, we aim to inspire such cross-pollination by evaluating the selectivity and electrochemical driving forces for 29 separations across nine different applications using a common framework grounded in the physicochemical characteristics of the permeating and rejected solutes. Our analysis shows that highly selective membranes usually exhibit high solute rejection, rather than fast solute permeation, and often exploit contrasts in the size and charge of solutes rather than a nonelectrostatic chemical property, polarizability. We also highlight the power of selective driving forces (e.g., the fact that applied electric potential acts on charged solutes but not on neutral ones) to enable effective separation processes, even when the membrane itself has poor selectivity. We conclude by proposing several research opportunities that are likely to impact multiple areas of membrane science. The high-level perspective of membrane separation across fields presented herein aims to promote cross-pollination and innovation by enabling comparisons of solute transport and driving forces among membrane separation applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah
M. Dischinger
- Chemical
Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Daniel J. Miller
- Chemical
Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - David A. Vermaas
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Delft University
of Technology, 2629HZ Delft, The
Netherlands
| | - Ryan S. Kingsbury
- Energy
Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the Andlinger Center for
Energy and the Environment, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08540, United States
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2
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Ma L, Roman M, Alhadidi A, Jia M, Martini F, Xue Y, Verliefde A, Gutierrez L, Cornelissen E. Fate of organic micropollutants during brackish water desalination for drinking water production in decentralized capacitive electrodialysis. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 245:120625. [PMID: 37820474 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Capacitive electrodialysis (CED) is an emerging and promising desalination technology for decentralized drinking water production. Brackish water, often used as a drinking water source, may contain organic micropollutants (OMPs), thus raising environmental and health concerns. This study investigated the transport of OMPs in a fully-functional decentralized CED system for drinking water production under realistic operational conditions. Eighteen environmentally-relevant OMPs (20 µg L-1) with different physicochemical properties (charge, size, hydrophobicity) were selected and added to the feed water. The removal of OMPs was significantly lower than that of salts (∼94%), mainly due to their lower electrical mobility and higher steric hindrance. The removal of negatively-charged OMPs reached 50% and was generally higher than that of positively-charged OMPs (31%), whereas non-charged OMPs were barely transported. Marginal adsorption of OMPs was found under moderate water recovery (50%), in contrast to significant adsorption of charged OMPs under high water recovery (80%). The five-month operation demonstrated that the CED system could reliably produce water with low salt ions and TOC concentrations, meeting the respective WHO requirements. The specific energy consumption of the CED stack under 80% water recovery was 0.54 kWh m-3, which is competitive to state-of-the-art RO, ED, and emerging MCDI in brackish water desalination. Under this condition, the total OPEX was 2.43 € m-3, of which the cost of membrane replacement contributed significantly. Although the CED system proved to be a robust, highly adaptive, and fully automated technology for decentralized drinking water production, it was not highly efficient in removing OMPs, especially non-charged OMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingshan Ma
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group (PaInT), Ghent University, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Belgium.
| | - Malgorzata Roman
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group (PaInT), Ghent University, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Belgium; European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology (Wetsus), the Netherlands
| | | | - Mingsheng Jia
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Belgium; Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Belgium
| | | | - Yu Xue
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group (PaInT), Ghent University, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Belgium
| | - Arne Verliefde
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group (PaInT), Ghent University, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Belgium
| | - Leonardo Gutierrez
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group (PaInT), Ghent University, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Belgium; Facultad del Mar y Medio Ambiente, Universidad del Pacifico, Ecuador
| | - Emile Cornelissen
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group (PaInT), Ghent University, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Belgium; KWR Watercycle Research Institute, the Netherlands
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Mahlangu OT, Motsa MM, Hai FI, Mamba BB. Role of Membrane-Solute Affinity Interactions in Carbamazepine Rejection and Resistance to Organic Fouling by Nano-Engineered UF/PES Membranes. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:744. [PMID: 37623805 PMCID: PMC10456577 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13080744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
In this study, polyethersulfone (PES) ultrafiltration (UF) membranes were modified with GO, Ag, ZnO, Ag-GO and ZnO-GO nanoparticles to improve carbamazepine removal and fouling prevention by making membrane surfaces more hydrophilic. The fabricated membranes were characterized for surface and cross-sectional morphology, surface roughness and zeta potential, as well as hydrophilicity, functional groups, surface tension parameters and water permeability Thereafter, the membranes were evaluated for their efficiency in removing MgSO4 and carbamazepine as well as antifouling properties. To understand the role of affinity interactions in rejection and fouling, membrane-solute adhesion energies (∆Gslm) were quantified based on the Lifshitz-van der Waals/acid-base method. Unlike previous studies, which have generalized fouling prevention to be due to improvements in hydrophilicity upon adding nanoparticles, this work further explored the role of surface tension components on rejection and fouling prevention. The addition of nanoparticles improved membrane hydrophilicity (77-62°), water permeability (11.9-17.7 Lm-2 h-1 bar-1), mechanical strength (3.46-4.11 N/mm2), carbamazepine rejection (30-85%) and fouling prevention (60-23% flux decline). Rejection and antifouling properties increased as ∆Gslm became more repulsive (i.e., less negative). Membrane modification reduced irreversible fouling, and the fouled membranes were cleaned by flushing with water. Fouling related more to membrane electron donor components (γ-), while the roles of electron acceptor (γ+) and Lifshitz-van der Waals components (γLW) were less important. This work provides more insights into the role of affinity interactions in rejection and fouling and how rejection and fouling mechanisms change with nanoparticle addition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oranso Themba Mahlangu
- Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability, College of Engineering, Science and Technology, University of South Africa, Florida Science Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (M.M.M.); (B.B.M.)
- Strategic Water Infrastructure Laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia;
| | - Mxolisi Machawe Motsa
- Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability, College of Engineering, Science and Technology, University of South Africa, Florida Science Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (M.M.M.); (B.B.M.)
| | - Faisal Ibney Hai
- Strategic Water Infrastructure Laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia;
| | - Bhekie Brilliance Mamba
- Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability, College of Engineering, Science and Technology, University of South Africa, Florida Science Campus, Roodepoort 1709, South Africa; (M.M.M.); (B.B.M.)
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Chakachaka V, Mahlangu O, Tshangana C, Mamba B, Muleja A. Highly adhesive CoFe2O4 nanoengineered PES membranes for salts and Naproxen removal and antimicrobial activities. J Memb Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
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Castaño Osorio S, Biesheuvel PM, Spruijt E, Dykstra JE, van der Wal A. Modeling micropollutant removal by nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes: considerations and challenges. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 225:119130. [PMID: 36240724 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Organic micropollutants (OMPs) in drinking water constitute a potential risk to human health; therefore, effective removal of these pollutants is required. Nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) are promising membrane-based technologies to remove OMPs. In NF and RO, the rejection of OMPs depends on the properties and characteristics of the membrane, the solute, and the solution. In this review, we discuss how these properties can be included in models to study and predict the rejection of OMPs. Initially, an OMP classification is proposed to capture the relevant properties of 58 OMPs. Following the methodology described in this study, more and new OMPs can be easily included in this classification. The classification aims to increase the comprehension and mechanistic understanding of OMP removal. Based on the physicochemical principles used to classify the 58 OMPs, it is expected that other OMPs in the same groups will be similarly rejected. From this classification, we present an overview of the rejection mechanisms involved in the removal of specific OMP groups. For instance, we discuss the removal of OMPs classified as perfluoroalkyl substances (e.g., perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOA). These substances are highly relevant due to their human toxicity at extremely low concentration as well as their persistence and omnipresence in the environment. Finally, we discuss how the rejection of OMPs can be predicted by describing both the membrane-solution interface and calculating the transport of solutes inside the membrane. We illustrate the importance and impact of different rejection mechanisms and interfacial phenomena on OMP removal and propose an extended Nernst-Plank equation to calculate the transport of solutes across the membrane due to convection, diffusion, and electromigration. Finally, we show how the theory discussed in this review leads to improved predictions of OMP rejection by the membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Castaño Osorio
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, Leeuwarden 8911 MA, the Netherlands; Environmental Technology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 17, Wageningen 6700 AA, the Netherlands
| | - P M Biesheuvel
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, Leeuwarden 8911 MA, the Netherlands
| | - E Spruijt
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, Nijmegen 6525 AJ, the Netherlands
| | - J E Dykstra
- Environmental Technology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 17, Wageningen 6700 AA, the Netherlands.
| | - A van der Wal
- Environmental Technology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 17, Wageningen 6700 AA, the Netherlands; Evides Water Company, P.O. Box 4472, Rotterdam 3006 AL, the Netherlands.
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6
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Chen C, Wu X, Zhang J, Chen J, Cui X, Li W, Wu W, Wang J. Molecule transfer mechanism in
2D
heterostructured lamellar membranes: The effects of dissolution and diffusion. AIChE J 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.17795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chongchong Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Xiaoli Wu
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
- Henan Institute of Advanced Technology Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Jie Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Jingjing Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Xulin Cui
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Wenpeng Li
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Wenjia Wu
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Jingtao Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
- Henan Institute of Advanced Technology Zhengzhou University Zhengzhou P. R. China
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7
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Hydrogen peroxide in bioelectrochemical systems negatively affects microbial current generation. J APPL ELECTROCHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10800-021-01586-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Roman M, Roman P, Verbeke R, Gutierrez L, Vanoppen M, Dickmann M, Egger W, Vankelecom I, Post J, Cornelissen E, Keesman K, Verliefde A. Non-steady diffusion and adsorption of organic micropollutants in ion-exchange membranes: effect of the membrane thickness. iScience 2021; 24:102095. [PMID: 33659871 PMCID: PMC7892919 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no efficient wastewater treatment solution for removing organic micropollutants (OMPs), which, therefore, are continuously introduced to the Earth's surface waters. This creates a severe risk to aquatic ecosystems and human health. In emerging water treatment processes based on ion-exchange membranes (IEM), transport of OMPs through membranes remains unknown. We performed a comprehensive investigation of the OMP transport through a single IEM under non-steady-state conditions. For the first time, positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy was used to study differences in the free volume element radius between anion- and cation-exchange membranes, and between their thicknesses. The dynamic diffusion-adsorption model was used to calculate the adsorption and diffusion coefficients of OMPs. Remarkably, diffusion coefficients increased with the membrane thickness, where its surface resistance was more evident in thinner membranes. Presented results will contribute to the improved design of next-generation IEMs with higher selectivity toward multiple types of organic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Roman
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Corresponding author
| | - Pawel Roman
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
| | - Rhea Verbeke
- Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F p. o. box 2461, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leonardo Gutierrez
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Facultad del Mar y Medio Ambiente, Universidad Del Pacifico, Ecuador
| | - Marjolein Vanoppen
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marcel Dickmann
- Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Zentrum (MLZ), Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany and Physik-Department E21, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Werner Egger
- Institut für Angewandte Physik und Messtechnik, Universität der Bundeswehr München, Werner-Heisenberg-Weg 39, 85577 Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Ivo Vankelecom
- Institut für Angewandte Physik und Messtechnik, Universität der Bundeswehr München, Werner-Heisenberg-Weg 39, 85577 Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Jan Post
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
| | - Emile Cornelissen
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3433 PE Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Karel Keesman
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
- Mathematical and Statistical Methods - Biometris, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Arne Verliefde
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Ma L, Gutierrez L, Verbeke R, D'Haese A, Waqas M, Dickmann M, Helm R, Vankelecom I, Verliefde A, Cornelissen E. Transport of organic solutes in ion-exchange membranes: Mechanisms and influence of solvent ionic composition. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 190:116756. [PMID: 33387949 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ion-exchange membrane (IEM)-based processes are used in the industry or in the drinking water production to achieve selective separation. The transport mechanisms of organic solutes/micropollutants (i.e., paracetamol, clofibric acid, and atenolol) at a single-membrane level in diffusion cells were similar to that of salts (i.e., diffusion, convection, and electromigration). The presence of an equal concentration of salts at both sides of the membrane slightly decreased the transport of organics due to lower diffusion coefficients of organics in salts and the increase of hindrance and/or decrease of partitioning in the membrane phase. In the presence of a salt gradient, diffusion was the main transport mechanism for non-charged organics, while the counter-transport of salts promoted the transport of charged organics through electromigration (electroneutrality). Conversely, the co-transport of salts hindered the transport of charged organics, where diffusion was the main transport mechanism of the latter. Although convection played a role in the transport of non-charged organics, its influence on the charged solutes was minimal due to the dominant electromigration. Positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy showed a bimodal size distribution of free-volume elements of IEMs, with both classes of free-volume elements contributing to salt transport, while larger organics can only transport through the larger class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingshan Ma
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Belgium.
| | - Leonardo Gutierrez
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Belgium; Facultad del Mar y Medio Ambiente, Universidad del Pacifico, Ecuador
| | - Rhea Verbeke
- Membrane Technology Group, Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arnout D'Haese
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Muhammad Waqas
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Marcel Dickmann
- Institut für Angewandte Physik und Messtechnik, Universität der Bundeswehr München, Germany
| | - Ricardo Helm
- Institut für Angewandte Physik und Messtechnik, Universität der Bundeswehr München, Germany
| | - Ivo Vankelecom
- Membrane Technology Group, Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arne Verliefde
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Emile Cornelissen
- Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Ghent University, Belgium; KWR Water Research Institute, Netherlands.
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Volpin F, Woo YC, Kim H, Freguia S, Jeong N, Choi JS, Cho J, Phuntsho S, Shon HK. Energy recovery through reverse electrodialysis: Harnessing the salinity gradient from the flushing of human urine. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 186:116320. [PMID: 32866930 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Urine dilution is often performed to avoid clogging or scaling of pipes, which occurs due to urine's Ca2+ and Mg2+ precipitating at the alkaline conditions created by ureolysis. The large salinity gradient between urine and flushing water is, theoretically, a source of potential energy which is currently unexploited. As such, this work explored the use of a compact reverse electrodialysis (RED) system to convert the chemical potential energy of urine dilution into electric energy. Urine' composition and ureolysis state as well as solution pumping costs were all taken into account. Despite having almost double its electric conductivity, real hydrolysed urine obtained net energy recoveries ENet of 0.053-0.039 kWh/m3, which is similar to energy recovered from real fresh urine. The reduced performances of hydrolysed urine were linked to its higher organic fouling potential and possible volatilisation of NH3 due to its high pH. However, the higher-than-expected performance achieved by fresh urine is possibly due to the fast diffusion of uncharged urea to the freshwater side. Real urine was also tested as a novel electrolyte solution and its performance compared with a conventional K4Fe(CN)6/K3Fe(CN)6 couple. While K4Fe(CN)6/K3Fe(CN)6 outperformed urine in terms of power densities and energy recoveries, net chemical reactions seemed to have occurred in urine when used as an electrolyte solution, leading to TOC, ammonia and urea removal of up to 13%, 6% and 4.4%, respectively. Finally, due to the migration of K+, NH4+ and PO43-, the low concentration solution could be utilised for fertigation. Overall, this process has the potential of providing off-grid urine treatment or energy production at a household or building level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Volpin
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), City Campus, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia; City Water Technology, 2072 Sydney, Australia
| | - Yun Chul Woo
- Department of Land, Water and Environment Research, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, 283 Goyang-Daero, Ilsanseo-Gu, Goyang-Si,Gyeonggi-Do, 10223, Republic of Korea
| | - Hanki Kim
- Jeju Global Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research, 200 Haemajihaean-ro, Gujwa-eup, Jeju, 63359, Republic of Korea
| | - Stefano Freguia
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Namjo Jeong
- Jeju Global Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research, 200 Haemajihaean-ro, Gujwa-eup, Jeju, 63359, Republic of Korea
| | - June-Seok Choi
- Department of Land, Water and Environment Research, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, 283 Goyang-Daero, Ilsanseo-Gu, Goyang-Si,Gyeonggi-Do, 10223, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaeweon Cho
- School of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), UNIST-gil 50, Ulsan 689-798, Republic of Korea
| | - Sherub Phuntsho
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), City Campus, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Ho Kyong Shon
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), City Campus, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia.
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