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Bozorov Y, Turaev K, Alikulov R, Karimov M, Muminov B, Berdimurodov E, Eliboev I, Demir M, Yusuff AS, Elangovan N. Ion exchange membranes in environmental applications: Comprehensive review. CHEMOSPHERE 2025; 377:144327. [PMID: 40120562 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2025.144327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2025] [Accepted: 03/15/2025] [Indexed: 03/25/2025]
Abstract
Ion exchange membranes (IEMs) are transformative materials in environmental and industrial applications, offering selective ion transport capabilities crucial for water desalination, wastewater treatment, energy generation, and resource recovery. Recent advancements have focused on developing nanocomposite and organic-inorganic hybrid membranes, integrating materials like graphene oxide, silica, and carbon nanotubes to enhance mechanical strength, thermal stability, and chemical resistance. These innovations have yielded remarkable results, such as achieving 77.9 % energy conversion efficiency and current densities of 1000 mA/cm2 in seawater electrolysis systems. Additionally, advanced IEMs demonstrate significant improvements in selective ion removal, with lithium recovery efficiencies reaching 93 % and fluoride reduction below WHO guidelines. Despite these successes, challenges like fouling, chemical degradation, high costs, and scalability barriers remain. Future research directions emphasize sustainability, with a focus on biopolymer-based membranes, renewable energy integration, and computational modeling. By addressing these challenges, IEMs can significantly contribute to global environmental sustainability and resource efficiency. IEMs are vital in energy generation, enabling ion transport in fuel cells (PEMFCs, AEMFCs) for clean energy, redox flow batteries (VRFBs) for efficient energy storage, and electrolyzers (PEMELs, AEMELs) for hydrogen production. They also support salinity gradient power in reverse electrodialysis (RED) and pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) and facilitate CO2 electroreduction (CO2RR) for carbon-neutral fuel production. This review (covering 2020-2024 publication years) explores recent developments in IEM technology, highlighting their applications, challenges, and future prospects in addressing global environmental and industrial challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yokubjon Bozorov
- Faculty of Chemistry, Termez State University, Termez, Uzbekistan
| | - Khait Turaev
- Faculty of Chemistry, Termez State University, Termez, Uzbekistan
| | - Rustam Alikulov
- Faculty of Chemistry, Termez State University, Termez, Uzbekistan
| | - Masud Karimov
- Tashkent Chemical Technology Research Institute, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
| | | | - Elyor Berdimurodov
- Chemical & Materials Engineering, New Uzbekistan University, 54 Mustaqillik Ave., Tashkent 100007, Uzbekistan; Faculty of Chemistry, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, 100034, Uzbekistan.
| | - Ilyos Eliboev
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Chemistry, Alfraganus University, Tashkent, 100190, Uzbekistan; Physics and chemistry, Western Caspian University, Baku, AZ-1001, Azerbaijan; Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Karshi State University, Karshi City, Uzbekistan
| | - Muslum Demir
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Bogazici University, 34342, Istanbul, Türkiye; TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Material Institute, Gebze, 41470, Türkiye
| | - Adeyinka Sikiru Yusuff
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, College of Engineering, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Natarajan Elangovan
- Centre for Global Health Research, Saveetha Medical College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, India; Research Centre for Computational and Theoretical Chemistry, Anjalam-621208, Musiri, Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, India
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Wang Z, Zhang W, Wang W, Wang P, Ni L, Wang S, Ma J, Cheng W. Amine-Modified ZIF Composite Membranes: Regulated Nanochannel Interactions for Enhanced Cation Transport and Precise Separation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2025; 59:4199-4209. [PMID: 39976453 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5c00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2025]
Abstract
Electromembrane water treatment technologies are attracting attention for their energy efficiency and precise separation of counterions. However, ion-exchange membranes exhibit low ionic conductance and selectivity for ions with similar charges. In this study, we developed a novel ZIF-8 composite membrane with amine-modified nanochannels through an in situ PEI-assisted seeding and secondary growth method. An integral and uniform selective layer was formed, and the amine-modified nanochannels induced differential transport of Li+, Na+, K+, and Mg2+ via the dehydration-hydration process. The composite membrane possessed a lower energy barrier for Na+ transport (Ea = 13 kJ mol-1) compared to Mg2+ (Ea = 17 kJ mol-1), showing a Na+ flux of 3.7 × 10-8 mol·cm-2·s-1 and a Na+/Mg2+ permselectivity of 52 (∼60 times higher than the commercial membrane). The physicochemical and electrochemical properties of the composite membranes were systematically characterized, revealing the significant role of the Mg2+ layer in increasing Mg2+ repulsion and facilitating Na+ diffusion. Besides, DFT simulation and interaction energy calculation elucidated that a moderate binding energy and compensation effect between ions and nanochannels, which can be precisely regulated by PEI incorporation, are crucial for the favorable passage of Na+ while maintaining high Mg2+ rejection. The membrane also demonstrated performance stability during a 5-day test and maintained high selectivity across varying salinity and pH conditions. This work advances the development of efficient cation separation membranes for sustainable desalination and resource recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science and Technology, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin 300384, P.R. China
| | - Wenjuan Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science and Technology, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin 300384, P.R. China
| | - Weifu Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science and Technology, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin 300384, P.R. China
| | - Peizhi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, P.R. China
| | - Lei Ni
- School of Material Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, P.R. China
| | - Shaopo Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science and Technology, School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin 300384, P.R. China
| | - Jun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, P.R. China
| | - Wei Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, P.R. China
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Yang PX, Wang J, Liu HL, Guo ZY, Huang ZH, Zhang PP, Ji ZY. High-Performance Monovalent Selective Cation Exchange Membranes with Ionically Cross-Linkable Side Chains: Effect of the Acidic Groups. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:35576-35587. [PMID: 38940328 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c07085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Inspired by the charge-governed protein channels located in the cell membrane, a series of polyether ether ketone-based polymers with side chains containing ionically cross-linkable quaternary ammonium groups and acidic groups have been designed and synthesized to prepare monovalent cation-selective membranes (MCEMs). Three acidic groups (sulfonic acid, carboxylic acid, and phenolic hydroxyl) with different acid dissociation constant (pKa) were selected to form the ionic cross-linking structure with quaternary ammonium groups in the membranes. The ionic cross-linking induced the nanophase separation and constructed ionic channels, which resulted in excellent mechanical performance and high cation fluxes. Interesting, the cation flux of membranes increased as the ionization of acidic groups increase, but the selectivity of MCEMs did not follow the same trend, which was mainly dependent on the affinity between the functional groups and the cations. Carboxyl group-containing MCEMs exhibited the best selectivity (9.01 for Li+/Mg2+), which was higher than that of the commercial monovalent cation-selective CIMS membrane. Therefore, it is possible to prepare stable MCEMs through a simple process using ionically cross-linkable polymers, and tuning acidic groups in the membranes provided an attractive approach to improving the cation flux and selectivity of MCEMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng-Xu Yang
- Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
- Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Marine Chemical Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
- Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Marine Chemical Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
| | - Hui-Li Liu
- Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
- Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Marine Chemical Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
| | - Zhi-Yuan Guo
- Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
- Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Marine Chemical Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
| | - Zhi-Hui Huang
- Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
- Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Marine Chemical Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
| | - Pan-Pan Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
- Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Marine Chemical Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
| | - Zhi-Yong Ji
- Engineering Research Center of Seawater Utilization Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
- Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Marine Chemical Technology, Tianjin 300130, China
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Novel ecofriendly cation exchange membranes for low-cost electrodialysis of brackish water: Desalination and antiscaling performance. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Ijaz I, Bukhari A, Gilani E, Nazir A, Zain H. Compositing of MOFs with ceramic and nanoparticles for efficient and rapid adsorptive desalination of artificial seawater or NaCl solution. RSC Adv 2022; 12:29793-29804. [PMID: 36329944 PMCID: PMC9585531 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra04182k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Poor water availability with the fast-growing population creates crucial issues for universal water security, and efficient approaches ought to be accomplished to balance the demand and supply. One of the most energy- and cost-effective methods for removing NaCl is adsorption desalination. Metal-organic frameworks with ceramic and nanoparticles are a comparatively new research route that increases the desalination capacity. The synthesized composites were examined for efficient and rapid removal of NaCl from NaCl solution or artificial seawater. The adsorption desalination properties were analyzed based on adsorption isotherm, adsorption kinetics, contact time, NaCl, and adsorbent dosage. The adsorptive desalination rate of ZnO@MIL88A(Fe)@α-cordierite composite was only decreased by 4% as the maximum loss after 5 consecutive cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irfan Ijaz
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Basic Sciences and Mathematics, Minhaj University LahoreLahore 54700Pakistan
| | - Aysha Bukhari
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Basic Sciences and Mathematics, Minhaj University LahoreLahore 54700Pakistan
| | - Ezaz Gilani
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Basic Sciences and Mathematics, Minhaj University LahoreLahore 54700Pakistan
| | - Ammara Nazir
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Basic Sciences and Mathematics, Minhaj University LahoreLahore 54700Pakistan
| | - Hina Zain
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, Superior University LahoreLahore 54700Pakistan
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Zhao J, Dong L, Chen Q, Wang J. Eco-friendly and low-cost homogeneous cation exchange membranes functionalized by sodium dodecyl sulfate and applied in fine desalination. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2021.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Pan J, Liu L, Tao Y, Zhao L, Yu X, Wu B, Zhao X, Liu L. Green Fabrication of Tertrabutylammonium Styrene Sulfonate Cation-Exchange Membranes via a Solvent-Free Photopolymerization Strategy. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c03274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiefeng Pan
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, P. R. China
| | - Lingling Liu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, P. R. China
| | - Yanyao Tao
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, P. R. China
| | - Lei Zhao
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohong Yu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, P. R. China
| | - Bin Wu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-friendly Polymer Materials, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, P. R. China
| | - Xueting Zhao
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, P. R. China
| | - Lifen Liu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, P. R. China
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Jiang S, Sun H, Wang H, Ladewig BP, Yao Z. A comprehensive review on the synthesis and applications of ion exchange membranes. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 282:130817. [PMID: 34091294 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ion exchange membranes (IEMs) are undergoing prosperous development in recent years. More than 30,000 papers which are indexed by Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) have been published on IEMs during the past twenty years (2001-2020). Especially, more than 3000 papers are published in the year of 2020, revealing researchers' great interest in this area. This paper firstly reviews the different types (e.g., cation exchange membrane, anion exchange membrane, proton exchange membrane, bipolar membrane) and electrochemical properties (e.g., permselectivity, electrical resistance/ionic conductivity) of IEMs and the corresponding working principles, followed by membrane synthesis methods, including the common solution casting method. Especially, as a promising future direction, green synthesis is critically discussed. IEMs are extensively applied in various applications, which can be generalized into two big categories, where the water-based category mainly includes electrodialysis, diffusion dialysis and membrane capacitive deionization, while the energy-based category mainly includes reverse electrodialysis, fuel cells, redox flow battery and electrolysis for hydrogen production. These applications are comprehensively discussed in this paper. This review may open new possibilities for the future development of IEMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanxue Jiang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Food Chain Pollution Control, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, 100048, China; Key Laboratory of Cleaner Production and Integrated Resource Utilization of China National Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, 100048, China; Barrer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Haishu Sun
- Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Huijiao Wang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Bradley P Ladewig
- Barrer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Institute for Micro Process Engineering (IMVT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Zhiliang Yao
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Food Chain Pollution Control, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, 100048, China; Key Laboratory of Cleaner Production and Integrated Resource Utilization of China National Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, 100048, China.
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Ji C, Yu H, Lu J, Ren Y, Lv L, Zhang W. High-Efficiency and Sustainable Desalination Using Thermo-regenerable MOF-808-EDTA: Temperature-Regulated Proton Transfer. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:23833-23842. [PMID: 33973777 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c05204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Adsorption as a desalination approach has the advantages of energy efficiency, low cost, and operational convenience, but its practical application is limited by low desalination capacity, consumption/disposal of strong acids/bases as regeneration reagents, and poor reusability. Herein, we synthesized a thermo-regenerable salt absorbent by grafting ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) onto a metal-organic framework (MOF), MOF-808-EDTA, which could rapidly adsorb NaCl within 30 min from saline water at 25 °C with a desalination capacity as high as 9.4 mmol/g. Moreover, the saturated adsorbent could be facilely regenerated in 80 °C water. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and derivative thermogravimetry revealed that temperature-regulated proton transfer between amino and carboxyl groups was the mechanism of thermo-regeneration. EDTA on MOF-808-EDTA appears in a zwitterionic state in water at room temperature, which allowed simultaneous adsorption of Na+ and Cl-. At elevated temperature, it returned to a nonionic state accompanied by the desorption of ions. A similar temperature-dependent adsorption-regeneration process was also observed for other salts, including LiCl, KCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2. Column experiments of brackish groundwater showed that 1 g of MOF-808-EDTA could produce ∼106 mL of fresh water (total dissolved solids < 600 mg/L) without significant capacity loss after 10 successive adsorption-regeneration cycles. This study is the first to propose an EDTA-based MOF for desalination and indicates the potential of MOF-808-EDTA as a green adsorbent for sustainable water desalination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenghan Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Junhe Lu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yi Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Lu Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
- Research Center for Environmental Nanotechnology (ReCENT), Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Weiming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
- Research Center for Environmental Nanotechnology (ReCENT), Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
- State Environmental Protection Engineering Center for Organic Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Reuse, Nanjing 210046, China
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Sosa-Fernandez PA, Miedema SJ, Bruning H, Leermakers FAM, Post JW, Rijnaarts HHM. Effects of feed composition on the fouling on cation-exchange membranes desalinating polymer-flooding produced water. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 584:634-646. [PMID: 33176931 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.10.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Cation exchange membranes (CEMs) are subject to fouling when utilized to desalinate wastewater from the oil and gas industry, hampering their performance. The kind and extent of the fouling are most likely dependent on the composition of the stream, which in practical applications can vary significantly. EXPERIMENTS Fouling experiments were performed on commercial cation exchange membranes, which were used in electrodialysis runs to desalinate solutions of varying composition. The variations included ionic strength, type of ions, amount of viscosifying polyelectrolyte (partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide), presence of crude oil, and surfactants. Performance parameters, like electric potential and pH, were monitored during the runs, after which the membranes were recovered and analyzed. FINDINGS Fouling was detected on most CEMs and occurred mainly in the presence of the viscosifying polyelectrolyte. Under normal pH conditions (pH ~ 8), the polyelectrolyte fouled the concentrate side of the CEMs, as expected due to electrophoresis. However, by applying a current in the opposite direction, the polyelectrolyte layer could be removed. Precipitation occurred mostly on the opposite side of the membrane, with different morphology depending on the feed composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Sosa-Fernandez
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, P.O. Box 1113, 8911 CC Leeuwarden, the Netherlands; Environmental Technology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV, Wageningen, the Netherlands; Physical Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8038, 6700 EK, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - S J Miedema
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, P.O. Box 1113, 8911 CC Leeuwarden, the Netherlands.
| | - H Bruning
- Environmental Technology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - F A M Leermakers
- Physical Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8038, 6700 EK, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - J W Post
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, P.O. Box 1113, 8911 CC Leeuwarden, the Netherlands.
| | - H H M Rijnaarts
- Environmental Technology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
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