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Rasheed T, Ferry DB, Iqbal ZF, Imran M, Usman M. Cutting-edge developments in MXene-derived functional hybrid nanostructures: A promising frontier for next-generation water purification membranes. Chemosphere 2024; 357:141955. [PMID: 38614403 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
A novel family of multifunctional nanomaterials called MXenes is quickly evolving, and it has potential applications that are comparable to those of graphene. This article provides a current explanation of the design and performance assessment of MXene-based membranes. The production of MXenes nanosheets are first described, with an emphasis on exfoliation, dispersion stability, and processability, which are essential elements for membrane construction. Further, critical discussion is also given to MXenes potential applications in Vacuum assisted filtration, casting method, Hot press method, electrospinning and electrochemical deposition and layer-by-layer assembly for the creation of MXene and MXene derived nanocomposite membranes. Additionally, the discussion is carried forward to give an insight to the modification methods for the construction of MXene-based membrane are described in the literature, including pure or intercalated nanomaterials, surface modifiers and miscellaneous two-dimensional nanomaterials. Furthermore, the review article highlights the potential utilization of MXene and MXene based membranes in separation and purification processes including removal of small organic molecules, heavy metals, oil-water separation and desalination. Finally, the perspective use of MXenes strong catalytic activity and electrical conductivity for specialized applications that are difficult for other nanomaterials to accomplish are discussed in conclusion and future prospectus section of the manuscript. Overall, important information is given to help the communities of materials science and membranes to better understand the potential of MXenes for creating cutting-edge separation and purification membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahir Rasheed
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Advanced Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Darim Badur Ferry
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Advanced Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zeenat Fatima Iqbal
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore-54000, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Imran
- Research center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), Department of chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University, Abha 61413, P.O. Box 9004, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Usman
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen Technologies and Carbon Management, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
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2
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Ezaier Y, Hader A, Latif A, Khan ME, Ali W, Ali SK, Bashiri AH, Zakri W, Yusuf M, Rajamohan N, Ibrahim H. Solving the fouling mechanisms in composite membranes for water purification: An advance approach. Environ Res 2024; 250:118487. [PMID: 38365055 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
With the increasing population worldwide more wastewater is created by human activities and discharged into the waterbodies. This is causing the contamination of aquatic bodies, thus disturbing the marine ecosystems. The rising population is also posing a challenge to meet the demands of fresh drinking water in the water-scarce regions of the world, where drinking water is made available to people by desalination process. The fouling of composite membranes remains a major challenge in water desalination. In this innovative study, we present a novel probabilistic approach to analyse and anticipate the predominant fouling mechanisms in the filtration process. Our establishment of a robust theoretical framework hinges upon the utilization of both the geometric law and the Hermia model, elucidating the concept of resistance in series (RIS). By manipulating the transmembrane pressure, we demonstrate effective management of permeate flux rate and overall product quality. Our investigations reveal a decrease in permeate flux in three distinct phases over time, with the final stage marked by a significant reduction due to the accumulation of a denser cake layer. Additionally, an increase in transmembrane pressure leads to a correlative rise in permeate flux, while also exerting negative effects such as membrane ruptures. Our study highlights the minimal immediate impact of the intermediate blocking mechanism (n = 1) on permeate flux, necessitating continuous monitoring for potential long-term effects. Additionally, we note a reduced membrane selectivity across all three fouling types (n = 0, n = 1.5, n = 2). Ultimately, our findings indicate that the membrane undergoes complete fouling with a probability of P = 0.9 in the presence of all three fouling mechanisms. This situation renders the membrane unable to produce water at its previous flow rate, resulting in a significant reduction in the desalination plant's productivity. I have demonstrated that higher pressure values notably correlate with increased permeate flux across all four membrane types. This correlation highlights the significant role of TMP in enhancing the production rate of purified water or desired substances through membrane filtration systems. Our innovative approach opens new perspectives for water desalination management and optimization, providing crucial insights into fouling mechanisms and proposing potential strategies to address associated challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yassine Ezaier
- Bio-Geosciences and Materials Engineering Laboratory, Ecole Normale Supérieure, University Hassan II, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Ahmed Hader
- Bio-Geosciences and Materials Engineering Laboratory, Ecole Normale Supérieure, University Hassan II, Casablanca, Morocco; Regional Center for Education and Training Professions, Settat establishment, Morocco
| | - Abdelaziz Latif
- Bio-Geosciences and Materials Engineering Laboratory, Ecole Normale Supérieure, University Hassan II, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Mohammad Ehtisham Khan
- Department of Chemical Engineering Technology, College of Applied Industrial Technology, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Wahid Ali
- Department of Chemical Engineering Technology, College of Applied Industrial Technology, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Syed Kashif Ali
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Jazan University, Jazan, PO Box 114, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullateef H Bashiri
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Jazan University, P. O. Box 114, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Waleed Zakri
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Jazan University, P. O. Box 114, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Yusuf
- Clean Energy Technologies Research Institute (CETRI), Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, SK, S4S 0A2, Canada; Centre of Research Impact and Outcome, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India.
| | - Natarajan Rajamohan
- Chemical Engineering Section, Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, P C 311, Sohar, Oman
| | - Hussameldin Ibrahim
- Clean Energy Technologies Research Institute (CETRI), Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, SK, S4S 0A2, Canada
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Rahimi Z, Koslowski T, Lohrasebi A. Water purification modeling by functionalized hourglass-shape multilayer nano-channel. J Mol Graph Model 2023; 125:108599. [PMID: 37586129 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2023.108599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, inspired by the overall structure and operation of the aquaporin channel, graphene-based nanochannels are proposed to be used as potential membranes for the water purification process. To this end, an hourglass-shaped channel has been designed using the three-layer porous graphene sheets and the effects of some main channel's elements, such as the channel bending angle and attached functional groups to it, on the filtration performance have been examined by using molecular dynamics simulations. We find that a suitable bending channel shape can improve the channel efficiency, i.e. both the water permeability and the ion rejection rate of the suitable bent channels were more than for the straight channels. In addition, regarding the different functionalized channels, the half-functionalized channels were more efficient than the completed functionalized ones. Furthermore, by monitoring the dynamics of water molecules as they pass through the narrowest part of the channels, it was found that water molecule rotation assists water transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeinab Rahimi
- Department of Physics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 8174673441, Iran; Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Koslowski
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Amir Lohrasebi
- Department of Physics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 8174673441, Iran.
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Ali E, Orfi J, AlAnsary H, Baakeem S, Alsaadi AS, Ghaffour N. Concept and analysis of hybrid reversal multi-stage flash and membrane distillation desalination system. Environ Technol 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37970835 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2023.2284688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
The concept and analysis of integrating membrane distillations (MD) with reversal once-through Multistage Flash (RV-MSF) desalination is presented. The analysis is based on numerical simulation. The MD vessels are integrated into the terminal ends of the RV-MSF system to leverage the thermal energy associated with these terminal streams. Hybridisation at the last MSF stage, i.e. by replacing the brine cooler, contributes marginally to the overall production rate which amounts to 2%. However, it is found that hybridisation at stage one, i.e. utilising the energy of the MSF reject brine can increase the overall production rate by 65%. For seawater feed temperature of 80 oC and 24 MSF stages, 5 MD vessels in series can be integrated with the RV-MSF process. This ultimate hybridisation helped improve the recovery ratio from 7 to 23%, decreasing the specific cooling water requirement from 23 to 12 kg/kg and reducing the specific energy consumption from 129 to 41 kWh/m3 with respect to the stand-alone RV-MSF system. However, this achievement incurs an additional specific area for heat transfer which increased from 29 to 65 m2/(kg/s). This is because a large number of MD modules are incorporated into the hybridisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emad Ali
- Chemical Engineering Department, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jamel Orfi
- Mechanical Engineering Department, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hany AlAnsary
- Mechanical Engineering Department, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saleh Baakeem
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Ahmad S Alsaadi
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Noreddine Ghaffour
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC), Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
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Kumari P, Upadhyay P, Tripathi KM, Gupta R, Kulshrestha V, Awasthi K. Sulphonated poly(ethersulfone)/carbon nano-onions-based nanocomposite membranes with high ion-conducting channels for salt removal via electrodialysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2023; 30:87343-87352. [PMID: 37421532 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28570-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we are reporting the carbon nano onions (CNO)-based sulphonated poly(ethersulfone) (SPES) composite membranes by varying CNO content in SPES matrix for water desalination applications. CNOs were cost-effectively synthesized using flaxseed oil as a carbon source in an energy efficient flame pyrolysis process. The physico- and electrochemical properties of nanocomposite membranes were evaluated and compared to pristine SPES. Moreover, the chemical characterisation of composite membranes and CNOs were illustrated using techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and universal tensile machine (UTM). In the series of nanocomposite membranes, SPES-0.25 composite membrane displayed the highest water uptake (WU), ion exchange membrane (IEC) and ionic conductivity (IC) values that were enhanced by 9.25%, ~ 44.78% and ~ 6.10%, respectively, compared to pristine SPES membrane. The electrodialytic performance can be achieved maximum when membranes possess low power consumption (PC) and high energy efficiency (Ee). Therefore, the value of Ee and Pc for SPES-0.25 membrane has been determined to be 99.01 ± 0.97% and 0.92 ± 0.01 kWh kg-1, which are 1.12 and 1.11 times higher than the pristine SPES membrane. Hence, integrating CNO nanoparticles into the SPES matrix enhanced the ion-conducting channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poonam Kumari
- Department of Chemistry, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302017, India
| | - Prashant Upadhyay
- CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemical Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Gijubhai Badheka Marg, Bhavnagar, 364002, India
| | - Kumud Malika Tripathi
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy, Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, 530003, India
| | - Ragini Gupta
- Department of Chemistry, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302017, India
- Materials Research Centre, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302017, India
| | - Vaibhav Kulshrestha
- CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemical Research Institute (CSIR-CSMCRI), Gijubhai Badheka Marg, Bhavnagar, 364002, India
| | - Kamlendra Awasthi
- Department of Physics, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302017, India.
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Nasibiselahchin A, Soltanolkottabi F. Surface modification of polysulfone reverse osmosis membrane with chitosan-modified zinc oxide for water desalination. Environ Technol 2023:1-12. [PMID: 37515812 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2023.2237657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Decreasing groundwater levels, increasing world population, and pollution of water resources by industries lead to the use of new technologies for augmenting the fresh water supply such as its desalination. Chitosan-modified zinc oxide (C-ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized and used for surface modification of polysulfone (PSf) in water desalination. PSf /C-ZnO membrane was fabricated through the phase inversion method and characterized by Fourier transfer infrared (FTIR), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), Braunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and contact angle. The nanoparticle effect on the membrane properties was investigated by measuring the pure water flux and solute rejection under two constant pressures, at 6 and 10 bar, and the salts concentration of MgSO4, MgCl2, NaCl, and CaCl2 at 1 gL-1. The results showed that nanoparticles increased the hydrophilicity of the pristine PSf membrane while slightly decreasing the water permeability. Moreover, the salt rejection increased with the nanoparticle addition up to 0.2 wt.% while it decreased with 0.5 wt.% nanoparticle due to changing the membrane finger-like pores sublayer structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Nasibiselahchin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Shahreza Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahreza, Iran
| | - Fariba Soltanolkottabi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Shahreza Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahreza, Iran
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Du J, Xing W, Yu J, Feng J, Tang L, Tang W. Synergistic effect of intercalation and EDLC electrosorption of 2D/3D interconnected architectures to boost capacitive deionization for water desalination via MoSe 2/mesoporous carbon hollow spheres. Water Res 2023; 235:119831. [PMID: 36893590 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.119831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Transition-metal dichalcogenides can be used for capacitive deionization (CDI) via pseudocapacitive ion intercalation/de-intercalation due to their unique two-dimensional (2D) laminar structure. MoS2 has been extensively studied in the hybrid capacitive deionization (HCDI), but the desalination performance of MoS2-based electrodes remains only 20-35 mg g-1 on average. Benefiting from the higher conductivity and larger layer spacing of MoSe2 than MoS2, it is expected that MoSe2 would exhibit a superior HCDI desalination performance. Herein, for the first time, we explored the use of MoSe2 in HCDI and synthesized a novel MoSe2/MCHS composite material by utilizing mesoporous carbon hollow spheres (MCHS) as the growth substrate to inhibit the aggregation and improve the conductivity of MoSe2. The as-obtained MoSe2/MCHS presented unique 2D/3D interconnected architectures, allowing for synergistic effects of intercalation pseudocapacitance and electrical double layer capacitance (EDLC). An excellent salt adsorption capacity of 45.25 mg g- 1 and a high salt removal rate of 7.75 mg g- 1 min-1 were achieved in 500 mg L- 1 NaCl feed solution at an applied voltage of 1.2 V in batch-mode tests. Moreover, the MoSe2/MCHS electrode exhibited outstanding cycling performance and low energy consumption, making it suitable for practical applications. This work demonstrates the promising application of selenides in CDI and provides new insights for ration design of high-performance composite electrode materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Du
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering and Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Ministry of Education), Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Wenle Xing
- School of Resources and Environment, Hunan University of Technology and Business, Changsha 410205, China
| | - Jiaqi Yu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering and Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Ministry of Education), Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Jing Feng
- PowerChina Zhongnan Engineering Corporation Limited, Changsha 410014, China
| | - Lin Tang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering and Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Ministry of Education), Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Wangwang Tang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering and Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Ministry of Education), Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China.
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Raza S, Ghasali E, Orooji Y, Lin H, Karaman C, Dragoi EN, Erk N. Two dimensional (2D) materials and biomaterials for water desalination; structure, properties, and recent advances. Environ Res 2023; 219:114998. [PMID: 36481367 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An efficient solution to the global freshwater dilemma is desalination. MXene, Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2), Graphene Oxide, Hexagonal Boron Nitride, and Phosphorene are just a few examples of two-dimensional (2D) materials that have shown considerable promise in the development of 2D materials for water desalination. However, other promising materials for desalinating water are biomaterials. The benefits of bio-materials are their wide distribution, lack of toxicity, and superior capacity for water desalination. METHODS For the rational use of water and the advancement of sustainable development, it is of the utmost importance to research 2D-dimensional materials and biomaterials that are effective for water desalination. The scientific community has concentrated on wastewater remediation using bio-derived materials, such as nanocellulose, chitosan, bio-char, bark, and activated charcoal generated from plant sources, among the various endeavors to enhance access to clean water. Moreover, the 2D-materials and biomaterials may have ushered in a new age in the production of desalination materials and created a promising future. RESULTS The present review article focuses on and reviews the progress of 2D materials and biomaterials for water desalination. Their properties, surface, and structure, combined with water desalination applications, are highlighted. Further, the practicability and potential future directions of 2D materials and biomaterials are proposed. Thus, the current work provides information and discernments for developing novel 2D materials and biomaterials for wastewater desalination. Moreover, it aims to promote the contribution and advancement of materials for water desalination, fabrication, and industrial production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleem Raza
- College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China; College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Ehsan Ghasali
- College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China; College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Yasin Orooji
- College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China; College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China.
| | - Hongjun Lin
- College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China; College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Ceren Karaman
- Departmen of Electricity and Energy, Akdeniz University, Antalya, 07070, Turkey; School of Engineering, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon.
| | - Elena Niculina Dragoi
- "Cristofor Simionescu" Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, "Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University, Bld. D. Mangeron No 73, 700050, Iasi, Romania.
| | - Nevin Erk
- Ankara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, 06560, Ankara, Turkey
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Solangi NH, Mubarak NM, Karri RR, Mazari SA, Kailasa SK, Alfantazi A. Applications of advanced MXene-based composite membranes for sustainable water desalination. Chemosphere 2023; 314:137643. [PMID: 36581116 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
MXenes are an innovative class of 2D nanostructured materials gaining popularity for various uses in medicine, chemistry, and the environment. A larger outer layer area, exceptional stability and conductivity of heat, high porosity, and environmental friendliness are all characteristics of MXenes and their composites. As a result, MXenes have been used to produce Li-ion batteries, semiconductors, water desalination membranes, and hydrogen storage. MXenes have recently been used in many environmental remediations, frequently surpassing conventional materials, to treat groundwater contamination, surface waters, industrial and municipal wastewaters, and desalination. Due to their outstanding structural characteristics and the enormous specific surface area, they are widely utilized as adsorbents or membrane materials for the desalination of seawater. When used for electrochemical applications, MXene-composites can deionize via Faradaic capacitive deionization (CDI) and adsorb various organic and inorganic pollutants to treat the water. In general, as compared to other 2D nanomaterials, MXene has superb characteristics; because of their magnificent characteristics and they exhibit strong desalination capability. The current review paper discusses the desalination capability of MXenes and their composites. Focusing on the desalination capacity of MXene-based nanomaterials, this study discusses the characteristics and synthesis techniques of MXenes their composites along with their ion-rejection capability and pervaporation desalination of water via MXene-based membranes, capacitive deionization capability, solar desalination capability. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects of MXenes and their composites are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadeem Hussain Solangi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Dawood University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, 74800, Pakistan
| | - Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak
- Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
| | - Rama Rao Karri
- Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
| | - Shaukat Ali Mazari
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Dawood University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, 74800, Pakistan.
| | - Suresh Kumar Kailasa
- Department of Chemistry, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395 007, Gujarat, India
| | - Akram Alfantazi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, 127788, United Arab Emirates
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10
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Ketata A, Driss Z. A study of cover slope effect on productivity of solar still under Tunisian winter and summer conditions. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2023; 30:14722-14744. [PMID: 36161558 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23215-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The Tunisian country will suffer from the scarcity of clean and healthy drinking water in the near future. Solar still-based water distillation is one of the simplest cheap technologies that may solve this problem. The present study addresses this problem through experimentally and numerically investigating the feasibility of water desalination with a passive solar still in actual Tunisia Sfax central region climate conditions as well as the glass cover angle effect on the productivity of the solar still. The study was conducted for 2 days so that 1 day is in the summer and another day in the winter for comparison purpose. The flow solution was obtained with the Fluent solver Eulerian multiphase model coupled to a developed C + + mass transfer code based on the Dunkle model. The considered glass cover angles are 5°, 10°, 20°, 30°, 45°, and 60°. The deviation between the numerical results and test data does not exceed 15% which ensures the validity of the calculation method. Both experimental and numerical results showed that the solar still productivity in summer is by far better than that in winter. The optimal glass cover angle was found to be of 20° in both summer and winter seasons. The maximum daily water yield is of 535.64 ml on January 15, 2021 and 3083.11 ml on June 15, 2021. The results proved that the solar still can be an efficient device for solar desalination in Tunisia central region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Ketata
- Laboratory of Electromechanical Systems, National Engineering School of Sfax, (ENIS), University of Sfax, km 3.5 Road Soukra, P.O. Box 1173, 3038, Sfax, Tunisia.
- Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology of Gabes, University of Gabes, Road Omar Eben Khattab, 6029, Gabes, Tunisia.
| | - Zied Driss
- Laboratory of Electromechanical Systems, National Engineering School of Sfax, (ENIS), University of Sfax, km 3.5 Road Soukra, P.O. Box 1173, 3038, Sfax, Tunisia
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Yang Z, Li Y, Zhan Z, Song Y, Zhang L, Jin Y, Xu L, Wang J, Shen X, Liu L, Chen F. Enhanced power generation, organics removal and water desalination in a microbial desalination cell (MDC) with flow electrodes. Sci Total Environ 2023; 858:159914. [PMID: 36343800 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This study introduced a flow electrode microbial desalination cell (FE-MDC), which used activated carbon (AC) particles and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as the electrode to promote electron harvesting. The recovered electricity energy (0.371 KWh/m3) and columbic efficiency (66.7 %) of the FE-MDC were over 2 times higher than those of the conventional MDC without the flow electrode. Consequently, the salt and COD removal efficiencies were enhanced to 77.8 % and 91.2 %, respectively. Electrochemical analysis implied that the charge transfer resistance of the system was reduced by the flow electrode. Electron accumulation and charging-discharging experiments proved that the flow electrode could accumulate electrons and transfer the electrons to the fixed anode. Bacterial community analysis indicated that the bacterial activity was improved by the flow electrode. The content of the exoelectrogen Pseudomonas increased from 5.0 % to 14.7 %, and Hydrogenophaga improved from 1.4 % to 5.9 %. Finally, a continuous operation mode of the FE-MDC was established, and the flow electrode slurry was returned to the anodic chamber for recirculated utilization. The voltage output, COD removal, and salt removal during the operation mode reached 610 mV, 78.8 %, and 76.1 %, respectively. This study proved that the flow electrode is a promising way to promote the practical application of MDC technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Yang
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Yunfei Li
- School of Bioengineering, Shandong Polytechnic, Jinan 250104, China
| | - Ziyi Zhan
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China; School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Yang Song
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Lijie Zhang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Yan Jin
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Linxu Xu
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Jin Wang
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Xue Shen
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Liming Liu
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Feiyong Chen
- Resources and Environment Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China.
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12
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Wang H, Zhao J, Li Y, Cao Y, Zhu Z, Wang M, Zhang R, Pan F, Jiang Z. Aqueous Two-Phase Interfacial Assembly of COF Membranes for Water Desalination. Nanomicro Lett 2022; 14:216. [PMID: 36352333 PMCID: PMC9646690 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-022-00968-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Aqueous two-phase system features with ultralow interfacial tension and thick interfacial region, affording unique confined space for membrane assembly. Here, for the first time, an aqueous two-phase interfacial assembly method is proposed to fabricate covalent organic framework (COF) membranes. The aqueous solution containing polyethylene glycol and dextran undergoes segregated phase separation into two water-rich phases. By respectively distributing aldehyde and amine monomers into two aqueous phases, a series of COF membranes are fabricated at water-water interface. The resultant membranes exhibit high NaCl rejection of 93.0-93.6% and water permeance reaching 1.7-3.7 L m-2 h-1 bar-1, superior to most water desalination membranes. Interestingly, the interfacial tension is found to have pronounced effect on membrane structures. The appropriate interfacial tension range (0.1-1.0 mN m-1) leads to the tight and intact COF membranes. Furthermore, the method is extended to the fabrication of other COF and metal-organic polymer membranes. This work is the first exploitation of fabricating membranes in all-aqueous system, confering a green and generic method for advanced membrane manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjian Wang
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiashuai Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Chemistry, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Cao
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziting Zhu
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China
| | - Meidi Wang
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China
| | - Runnan Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China
- Joint School of National University of Singapore and Tianjin University, International Campus of Tianjin University Binhai New City, Fuzhou, 350207, People's Republic of China
| | - Fusheng Pan
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China.
- Joint School of National University of Singapore and Tianjin University, International Campus of Tianjin University Binhai New City, Fuzhou, 350207, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhongyi Jiang
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin, 300192, People's Republic of China.
- Joint School of National University of Singapore and Tianjin University, International Campus of Tianjin University Binhai New City, Fuzhou, 350207, People's Republic of China.
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13
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Ahmad A, Sabir A, Iqbal SS, Felemban BF, Riaz T, Bahadar A, Hossain N, Khan RU, Inam F. Novel antibacterial polyurethane and cellulose acetate mixed matrix membrane modified with functionalized TiO 2 nanoparticles for water treatment applications. Chemosphere 2022; 301:134711. [PMID: 35487351 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial contamination is one of the leading causes of water pollution. Antibacterial polyurethane/cellulose acetate membranes modified by functionalized TiO2 nanoparticles were processed and studied. TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared and ultraviolet (UV) irradiated to activate their photocatalytic activity against Escherichia coli (E. Coil) and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria. Functionalized TiO2 nanoparticles were incorporated in flat-sheet mixed matrix membranes (MMMs). These membranes were characterized for their different properties such as morphology, thermal stability, mechanical strength, surface wettability, water retention, salt rejection, water flux, and their antibacterial performance against E. Coil and MRSA was also tested. The activity of nanoparticles against MRSA and E. coli was analyzed using three different concentrations, 0.5 wt%, 1.0 wt% and 1.5 wt% of nanoparticles and 0.5 wt% of TiO2 nanoparticles showed maximum growth of bacteria. The maximum inhibition was observed in membranes with maximum nanoparticles when compared with other membranes. All these characteristics were strongly affected by increasing the concentration of TiO2 nanoparticles in the prepared membranes and the duration of their UV exposure. Hence, it was proved from this analysis that these TiO2 modified membranes exhibit substantial antibacterial properties. The results are supporting the utilization of these materials for water purification purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adnan Ahmad
- Institute of Polymer and Textile Engineering and Technology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, P.O. Box 54590, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Aneela Sabir
- Institute of Polymer and Textile Engineering and Technology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, P.O. Box 54590, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Sadia Sagar Iqbal
- Department of Physics, The University of Lahore, P.O. Box 54000, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Bassem F Felemban
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif, 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tabinda Riaz
- Institute of Polymer and Textile Engineering and Technology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, P.O. Box 54590, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Ali Bahadar
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh, 21911, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nazia Hossain
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, 3001, Australia.
| | - Rafi Ullah Khan
- Institute of Polymer and Textile Engineering and Technology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, P.O. Box 54590, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Fawad Inam
- School of Architecture, Computing and Engineering, University of East London, Docklands Campus, E16 2RD, London, United Kingdom
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14
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Abstract
Water purification using 2D nanoporous membranes has been drawing significant attention for over a decade because of fast water transport in ultrathin membranes. We perform a comprehensive study using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations on water desalination using 2D flexible membranes where the coupling between the fluid dynamics and mechanics of the membrane plays an important role. We observe that a considerable deformation and fluctuation in the 2D membrane results in an enhanced water permeability (up to 122%) along with a slight decrease in the salt rejection rate (less than 11%). Simulations on harmonically vibrating membranes indicate that the vibrational match at the membrane-water interface can significantly increase the permeance. We conduct mechanical stability tests and discuss the maximum endurable pressure of 2D porous membranes for water desalination. These findings will contribute to advances in applications using ultrathin membranes, such as energy harvesting and molecular separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yechan Noh
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - N R Aluru
- Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, Oden Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin 78712, United States
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15
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Nthunya LN, Bopape MF, Mahlangu OT, Mamba BB, Van der Bruggen B, Quist-Jensen CA, Richards H. Fouling, performance and cost analysis of membrane-based water desalination technologies: A critical review. J Environ Manage 2022; 301:113922. [PMID: 34731960 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
While water is a key resource required to sustain life, freshwater sources and aquifers are being depleted at an alarming rate. As a mitigation strategy, saline water desalination is commonly used to supplement the available water resources beyond direct water supply. This is achieved through effective advanced water purification processes enabled to handle complex matrix of saline wastewater. Membrane technology has been extensively evaluated for water desalination. This includes the use of reverse osmosis (RO) (the most mature membrane technology for desalination), pervaporation (PV), electrodialysis (ED), membrane distillation (MD), and membrane crystallization (MCr). Though nanofiltration (NF) is not mainly applied for desalination purposes, it is included in the reviewed processes because of its ability to reach 90% salt rejection efficiency for water softening. However, its comparison with other technologies is not provided since NF cannot be used for removal of NaCl during desalination. Remarkably, membrane processes remain critically affected by several challenges including membrane fouling. Moreover, capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operating expenditure (OPEX) are the key factors influencing the establishment of water desalination processes. Therefore, this paper provides a concise and yet comprehensive review of the membrane processes used to desalt saline water. Furthermore, the successes and failures of each process are critically reviewed. Finally, the CAPEX and OPEX of these water desalination processes are reviewed and compared. Based on the findings of this review, MD is relatively comparable to RO in terms of process performance achieving 99% salt rejections. Also, high salt rejections are reported on ED and PV. The operation and maintenance (O&M) costs remain lower in ED. Notably, the small-scale MD OPEX falls below that of RO. However, the large-scale O&M in MD is rarely reported due to its slow industrial growth, thus making RO the most preferred in the current water desalination markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lebea N Nthunya
- Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag X3, 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Mokgadi F Bopape
- Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and Material Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag x680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Oranso T Mahlangu
- Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Florida 1709, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Bhekie B Mamba
- Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Florida 1709, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Bart Van der Bruggen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Cejna Anna Quist-Jensen
- Center for Membrane Technology, Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University, Fredrik Bajers Vej 7H, 9220, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Heidi Richards
- Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag X3, 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
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16
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Berkani M, Smaali A, Almomani F, Vasseghian Y. Recent advances in MXene-based nanomaterials for desalination at water interfaces. Environ Res 2022; 203:111845. [PMID: 34384753 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The best exceptional Physico-chemical attributes of MXenes including high conductivity, high surface area, high functionalization, hydroxide site, and other interesting properties have attracted recently the attention of scientists in the applications of MXene (Mn+1XnTx)-based nanomaterials for water treatment. To provide a full and comprehensive vision of the current state of the art, and improve the treatment performance, and motivate new researches in this area, this review focused on the uses of these novel 2D transition metal carbides for desalination of water and the general methods of fabrication of MXenes; thus, MXene-based nanomaterials are very efficient candidates in water desalination processes, in this review, the main properties of previous and current works about MXenes applications in this area were properly investigated. Moreover, a particular overview about the different properties of MXenes in desalination such as etching method, hydrophobicity, structural modification, and chemical modification has been performed; meanwhile, the investigation of MXenes and MXenes-based composites would be an excellent candidate in the future of water purification and environmental remediation fields, since they have several good properties compared to the other 2D materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Berkani
- Laboratoire Biotechnologies, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Biotechnologie, Ville Universitaire Ali Mendjeli, BP E66 25100, Constantine, Algeria
| | - Anfel Smaali
- Laboratoire Biotechnologies, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Biotechnologie, Ville Universitaire Ali Mendjeli, BP E66 25100, Constantine, Algeria
| | - Fares Almomani
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qatar University, P. O. Box, 2713, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Yasser Vasseghian
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Quchan University of Technology, Quchan, Iran.
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17
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Karimzadeh N, Azamat J, Erfan-Niya H. Efficient water desalination through mono and bilayer carbon nitride nanosheet membranes: Insights from molecular dynamics simulation. J Mol Graph Model 2022; 110:108059. [PMID: 34736058 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2021.108059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Water desalination through membranes is an excellent way to access drinking water. Among two-dimensional nanosheet membranes for water desalination, carbon nitride (C2N) nanosheet has been considered as a promising membrane by researchers because of its inherent structure and mechanical strength. In this work, molecular simulations were used to study the efficiency of the pristine C2N nanosheet in the water desalination process using applied hydrostatic pressure to the system. In our simulation box, the C2N nanosheet was placed in the center of the simulation cell in an aqueous ionic solution. Due to the applied pressure to the system, water molecules overcame the forces that prevented them from passing through the C2N, and therefore, they passed through the C2N membrane. The water flux and water permeability of considered systems were obtained. Also, for more investigation, water density, radial distribution function of ions, the water density map, and hydrogen bonds of the system were conducted. The results demonstrated that the C2N membrane is an effective membrane for desalination even at low pressures with the acceptable water flux and salt rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negin Karimzadeh
- Faculty of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Tabriz, 51666-16471, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Jafar Azamat
- Department of Basic Sciences, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Hamid Erfan-Niya
- Faculty of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Tabriz, 51666-16471, Tabriz, Iran.
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18
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Lei Z, Sun X, Zhu S, Dong K, Liu X, Wang L, Zhang X, Qu L, Zhang X. Nature Inspired MXene-Decorated 3D Honeycomb-Fabric Architectures Toward Efficient Water Desalination and Salt Harvesting. Nanomicro Lett 2021; 14:10. [PMID: 34862938 PMCID: PMC8643288 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-021-00748-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The 3D honeycomb-like fabric decorated with MXene is woven as solar evaporator. The honeycomb structure enables light-trapping and recycling of convective and radiative heat. The 3D honeycomb-fabric evaporator possesses high solar efficiency up to 93.5% under 1 sun irradiation and excellent salt harvesting ability. ABSTRACT Solar steam generation technology has emerged as a promising approach for seawater desalination, wastewater purification, etc. However, simultaneously achieving superior light absorption, thermal management, and salt harvesting in an evaporator remains challenging. Here, inspired by nature, a 3D honeycomb-like fabric decorated with hydrophilic Ti3C2Tx (MXene) is innovatively designed and successfully woven as solar evaporator. The honeycomb structure with periodically concave arrays creates the maximum level of light-trapping by multiple scattering and omnidirectional light absorption, synergistically cooperating with light absorbance of MXene. The minimum thermal loss is available by constructing the localized photothermal generation, contributed by a thermal-insulating barrier connected with 1D water path, and the concave structure of efficiently recycling convective and radiative heat loss. The evaporator demonstrates high solar efficiency of up to 93.5% and evaporation rate of 1.62 kg m−2 h−1 under one sun irradiation. Moreover, assisted by a 1D water path in the center, the salt solution transporting in the evaporator generates a radial concentration gradient from the center to the edge so that the salt is crystallized at the edge even in 21% brine, enabling the complete separation of water/solute and efficient salt harvesting. This research provides a large-scale manufacturing route of high-performance solar steam generator. [Image: see text] SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40820-021-00748-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Lei
- College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuantong Sun
- Department of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Shifeng Zhu
- College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Dong
- Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuqing Liu
- Department of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Lili Wang
- College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiansheng Zhang
- College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, People's Republic of China.
| | - Lijun Qu
- College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, People's Republic of China
| | - Xueji Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, People's Republic of China
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19
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Khalil A, Ahmed FE, Hilal N. The emerging role of 3D printing in water desalination. Sci Total Environ 2021; 790:148238. [PMID: 34107408 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Unmatched flexibility in terms of material selection, design and scalability, along with gradually decreasing cost, has led 3D printing to gain significant attention in various water treatment and desalination applications. In desalination, 3D printing has been applied to improve the energy efficiency of existing technologies. For thermal desalination, this involves the use of 3D printed components that enhance water evaporation and energy harvesting with new materials and designs. For membrane-based desalination, 3D printing offers membranes and other module components with customized materials and geometries for better fouling resistance and productivity. This review highlights the current status, advances and challenges associated with 3D printing in both thermal and membrane-based desalination technologies. Other unique benefits offered by 3D printing for water desalination along with the associated challenges are also discussed in this review. Finally, the future prospects and research directions are highlighted related to the application of 3D printing in the water desalination industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Khalil
- NYUAD Water Research Center, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, United Arab Emirates
| | - Farah Ejaz Ahmed
- NYUAD Water Research Center, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, United Arab Emirates
| | - Nidal Hilal
- NYUAD Water Research Center, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, United Arab Emirates.
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20
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Frappa M, Castillo AEDR, Macedonio F, Luca GD, Drioli E, Gugliuzza A. Exfoliated Bi 2Te 3-enabled membranes for new concept water desalination: Freshwater production meets new routes. Water Res 2021; 203:117503. [PMID: 34388495 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Water scarcity forces the science to find the most environmentally friendly propulsion technology for supplying plentiful freshwater at low energy costs. Membrane Distillation well meets criteria of eco-friendly management of natural resources, but it is not yet competitive on scale. Herein, we use a dichalchogenide compound (Bi2Te3) as a conceivable source to accelerate the redesign of advanced membranes technologies such as thermally driven membrane distillation. A procedure based on assisted dispersant liquid phase exfoliation is used to fill PVDF membranes. Key insights are gained in the crucial role of this topological material confined in hydrophobic membranes dedicated to recovery of freshwater from synthetic seawater. Intensified water flux together with reduced energy consumption is obtained into one pot, thereby gathering ultrafast production and thermal efficiency in a single device. Bi2Te3-enabled membranes show ability to reduce the resistance to mass transfer while high resistance to heat loss is opposite. Permeate flux is kept stable and salt rejection is higher than 99.99% during 23 h-MD test. Our results confirm the effectiveness of chalcogenides as frontier materials for new-concept water desalination through breakthrough thermally-driven membrane distillation, which is regarded as a new low-energy and sustainable solution to address the growing demand for access to freshwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Frappa
- Research Institute on Membrane Technology-National Research Council (CNR-ITM), Via Pietro Bucci 17C, Rende CS 87036, Italy
| | - A E Del Rio Castillo
- Graphene Labs, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Via Morego 3016163, Italy
| | - F Macedonio
- Research Institute on Membrane Technology-National Research Council (CNR-ITM), Via Pietro Bucci 17C, Rende CS 87036, Italy
| | - G Di Luca
- Research Institute on Membrane Technology-National Research Council (CNR-ITM), Via Pietro Bucci 17C, Rende CS 87036, Italy
| | - E Drioli
- Research Institute on Membrane Technology-National Research Council (CNR-ITM), Via Pietro Bucci 17C, Rende CS 87036, Italy; Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, University of Calabria, Via Pietro Bucci, Rende, CS 87036, Italy
| | - A Gugliuzza
- Research Institute on Membrane Technology-National Research Council (CNR-ITM), Via Pietro Bucci 17C, Rende CS 87036, Italy.
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21
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Sayed ET, Al Radi M, Ahmad A, Abdelkareem MA, Alawadhi H, Atieh MA, Olabi AG. Faradic capacitive deionization (FCDI) for desalination and ion removal from wastewater. Chemosphere 2021; 275:130001. [PMID: 33984902 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Capacitive deionization (CDI) is one of the emerging desalination technologies that attracted much attention in the last years as a low-cost, energy-efficient, and environmentally-friendly alternative to other desalination technologies, such as multi-stage flash desalination (MSF) and multiple effect distillation (MED). The implementation of faradaic electrode materials is a promising method for enhancing CDI systems' performance by achieving higher salt removal characteristics, lower energy consumption, and better ion selectivity. Therefore, a novel CDI technology named Faradaic CDI (FCDI) that implements faradaic electrode materials arose as a high-performance CDI cell design. In this work, the application of FCDI cells in desalination and wastewater treatment systems is reviewed. First, the progress done on using various FCDI systems for saline water desalination is summarized and discussed. Next, the application of FCDI in wastewater treatment applications and selective ion removal is presented. A thorough comparison between FCDI and conventional carbon-based CDI is carried out in terms of working principle, electrode material's cost, salt removal performance, energy consumption, advantages, and disadvantages. Finally, future research consideration regarding FCDI technology is included to drive this technology closer towards practical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enas Taha Sayed
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Chemical Engineering Department, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt
| | - Muaz Al Radi
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Aasim Ahmad
- Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Chemical Engineering Department, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt; Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Hussain Alawadhi
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Dept. of Applied Physics and Astronomy, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Muataz Ali Atieh
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, University of Sharjah, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
| | - A G Olabi
- Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Mechanical Engineering and Design, Aston University, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK.
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22
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Rikhtehgaran S, Wille LT. The effect of an electric field on ion separation and water desalination using molecular dynamics simulations. J Mol Model 2021; 27:21. [PMID: 33411064 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-020-04642-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Using molecular dynamics simulations, we analyze ion separation and water purification through a piston-driven graphene/carbon-nanotube filter in the presence of an external electric field. Three different magnitudes of electric field are applied along the nanotube's axial direction with the goal of separating sodium and chloride ions in a NaCl aqueous solution. For comparison purposes, we also study the same system in zero fields. Our results show that sufficiently large values of the electric field strength greatly improve the ion separation process. At the highest field strength, the theoretical efficiency of the filter in removing salt from water exceeds 95% indicating its applicability in commercial filtration processes to produce fresh water. These results suggest that the proposed set-up can be used to design highly efficient nanostructured membranes for water desalination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samaneh Rikhtehgaran
- Department of Physics, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL, 33431-0991, USA.
| | - Luc T Wille
- Department of Physics, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL, 33431-0991, USA
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23
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Hasseler TD, Ramachandran A, Tarpeh WA, Stadermann M, Santiago JG. Process design tools and techno-economic analysis for capacitive deionization. Water Res 2020; 183:116034. [PMID: 32736269 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Capacitive deionization (CDI) devices use cyclical electrosorption on porous electrode surfaces to achieve water desalination. Process modeling and design of CDI systems requires accurate treatment of the coupling among input electrical forcing, input flow rates, and system responses including salt removal dynamics, water recovery, energy storage, and dissipation. Techno-economic analyses of CDI further require a method to calculate and compare between a produced commodity (e.g. desalted water) versus capital and operational costs of the system. We here demonstrate a new modeling and analysis tool for CDI developed as an installable Matlab program that allows direct numerical simulation of CDI dynamics and calculation of key performance and cost parameters. The program is provided for free and is used to run open-source Simulink models. The Simulink environment sends information to the program and allows for a drag and drop design space where users can connect CDI cells to relevant periphery blocks such as grid energy, battery, solar panel, waste disposal, and maintenance/labor cost streams. The program allows for simulation of arbitrary current forcing and arbitrary flow rate forcing of one or more CDI cells. We employ validated well-mixed reactor formulations together with a non-linear circuit model formulation that can accommodate a variety of electric double layer sub-models (e.g. for charge efficiency). The program includes a graphical user interface (GUI) to specify CDI plant parameters, specify operating conditions, run individual tests or parameter batch-mode simulations, and plot relevant results. The techno-economic models convert among dimensional streams of species (e.g. feed, desalted water, and brine), energy, and cost and enable a variety of economic estimates including levelized water costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan D Hasseler
- Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Ashwin Ramachandran
- Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - William A Tarpeh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Michael Stadermann
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 94550, United States
| | - Juan G Santiago
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States.
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24
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Zhang G, Zhang J, Lv P, Sun J, Zhao P, Yang L. Modifying thin film composite membrane with zeolitic imidazolate framework-8@polydopamine for enhanced antifouling property. Chemosphere 2020; 248:125956. [PMID: 32028156 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.125956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Biofouling and organic fouling are major obstacles for polymeric membranes during application. In this work, zeolitic imidazolate framework-8@polydopamine (ZIF-8@PDA) nanoparticles were prepared by an aqueous synthesis strategy and incorporated into the polyamide (PA) selective layer to synthesize thin film nanocomposite membrane (TFN) during interfacial polymerization. The permeability and selectivity of the composite membrane were simultaneously improved with the introduction of ZIF-8@PDA. The water permeability of the TFN membrane increased to 3.74 ± 0.19 L/(m2·h·bar), which is 43.8% higher than that of the control membrane. Besides, the rejection of TFN membrane to sodium chloride is 98.68 ± 0.13%, which shows 0.99% increment than the unmodified membrane. Moreover, organic fouling and biofouling of the TFN membrane were also alleviated thanks to the introduction of the hydrophilic ZIF-8@PDA. The short-term filtration results indicate the performance of the TFN membrane is stable during operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gehong Zhang
- School of Civil & Architecture Engineering, Xi'an Technological University, Xi'an, 710021, China.
| | - Jie Zhang
- School of Civil & Architecture Engineering, Xi'an Technological University, Xi'an, 710021, China
| | - Pinghai Lv
- State Grid Shaanxi Electric Power Research Institute, Xi'an, 710100, China
| | - Jian Sun
- School of Civil & Architecture Engineering, Xi'an Technological University, Xi'an, 710021, China
| | - Pingge Zhao
- School of Civil & Architecture Engineering, Xi'an Technological University, Xi'an, 710021, China
| | - Leilei Yang
- China General Microbiological Culture Collection Center, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
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25
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Ihsanullah I. Potential of MXenes in Water Desalination: Current Status and Perspectives. Nanomicro Lett 2020; 12:72. [PMID: 34138292 PMCID: PMC7770811 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-020-0411-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
MXenes, novel 2D transition metal carbides, have emerged as wonderful nanomaterials and a superlative contestant for a host of applications. The tremendous characteristics of MXenes, i.e., high surface area, high metallic conductivity, ease of functionalization, biocompatibility, activated metallic hydroxide sites, and hydrophilicity, make them the best aspirant for applications in energy storage, catalysis, sensors, electronics, and environmental remediation. Due to their exceptional physicochemical properties and multifarious chemical compositions, MXenes have gained considerable attention for applications in water treatment and desalination in recent times. It is vital to understand the current status of MXene applications in desalination in order to define the roadmap for the development of MXene-based materials and endorse their practical applications in the future. This paper critically reviews the recent advancement in the synthesis of MXenes and MXene-based composites for applications in desalination. The desalination potential of MXenes is portrayed in detail with a focus on ion-sieving membranes, capacitive deionization, and solar desalination. The ion removal mechanism and regeneration ability of MXenes are also summarized to get insight into the process. The key challenges and issues associated with the synthesis and applications of MXenes and MXene-based composites in desalination are highlighted. Lastly, research directions are provided to guarantee the synthesis and applications of MXenes in a more effective way. This review may provide an insight into the applications of MXenes for water desalination in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ihsanullah Ihsanullah
- Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia.
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26
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Salamat Y, Hidrovo CH. Significance of the micropores electro-sorption resistance in capacitive deionization systems. Water Res 2020; 169:115286. [PMID: 31734390 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Capacitive Deionization (CDI) is an emerging technology representing a potential alternative to the common, energy-intensive desalination methods for low salinity water streams. In CDI an electrical field is applied to separate ionic species from aqueous solutions and electro-adsorb them into a highly porous material. CDI is a complex multi-scale system which requires robust mathematical models to closely describe its performance. Here, a dynamic two-dimensional model is developed coupling the diffusion and advection of the species in the bulk solution with their diffusion and electro-sorption in the porous electrodes. In this model, the adsorption/desorption resistance between the micropores and macropores along with variable non-electrostatic attractive forces in the micropores are also incorporated. The proposed theory is validated against experiments using a circular CDI cell operating under various conditions, where different transport mechanisms are limiting the total ion removal process. Performance of the CDI systems is also evaluated using inclusive figures of merit. The obtained results accentuate the significant effect of the rate-limited transfer of the ionic species from the macropores into the micropores, especially in systems subject to severe ion starvation, where neglecting this electro-sorption resistance leads to up to 50% and 210% overestimation of the energy efficiency and overall desalination performance, respectively. Furthermore, although the commonly used transport theory describing CDI fails to capture the dynamics of the systems at low initial concentration and high adsorption capacity by assuming fast electro-sorption without any resistance, the presented theory closely models the transport mechanisms in such systems. Moreover, we experimentally and numerically demonstrate a trade-off between the energetic and desalination performance in systems with low and high mass Péclet number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasamin Salamat
- Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Northeastern University, 334 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Carlos H Hidrovo
- Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Northeastern University, 334 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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27
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Lohrasebi A, Koslowski T. Modeling water purification by an aquaporin-inspired graphene-based nano-channel. J Mol Model 2019; 25:280. [PMID: 31463758 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-019-4160-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of water and particle transport through thin-film membranes is essential to improve the water permeability and the salt rejection rate of the purification progress. In this research, mimicking from the structure and operation of the aquaporin channel, graphene-based nano-channels were designed to be used as a water filter. The effects of variation of the channel's main elements, such as the width of the bottleneck and charges attached to the channel on its efficiency, were investigated via molecular dynamics simulations. We observe that the water flow through the channel decreases by increasing the charge, while the ion rejection rate of the channel is enhanced. Moreover, we find that the geometry and shape of the bottleneck part of the channel can affect the channel water flow and its selectivity. Finally, the pressure and the flow velocity in the channel were considered by using finite element models, and the results indicate that they are high at the entrance of the channel. The outcomes of this study can be used to improve the molecular knowledge of water desalination, which might be helpful in designing more efficient membranes. Graphical abstract As the piston pushed the solution to pass through the nano-channel, positive and negative ions are remained in the first box, by sensing electric field generated from the attached charges to the bottleneck part of the channel. Atomistic structure of channel is shown in the right part of the figure and the generated electric field is shown in the left part of the figure.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lohrasebi
- Department of Physics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 8174673441, Iran. .,School of Nano-Science, Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (IPM), Tehran, 193955531, Iran.
| | - T Koslowski
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 23a, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
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28
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Ramachandran A, Oyarzun DI, Hawks SA, Stadermann M, Santiago JG. High water recovery and improved thermodynamic efficiency for capacitive deionization using variable flowrate operation. Water Res 2019; 155:76-85. [PMID: 30831426 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Water recovery is a measure of the amount of treated water produced relative to the total amount of water processed through the system, and is an important performance metric for any desalination method. Conventional operating methods for desalination using capacitive deionization (CDI) have so far limited water recovery to be about 50%. To improve water recovery for CDI, we here introduce a new operating scheme based on a variable (in time) flow rate wherein a low flow rate during discharge is used to produce a brine volume which is significantly less than the volume of diluent produced. We demonstrate experimentally and study systematically this novel variable flowrate operating scheme in the framework of both constant current and constant voltage charge-discharge modes. We show that the variable flowrate operation can increase water recovery for CDI to very high values of ∼90% and can improve thermodynamic efficiency by about 2- to 3-fold compared to conventional constant flowrate operation. Importantly, this is achieved with minimal performance reductions in salt removal, energy consumption, and volume throughput. Our work highlights that water recovery can be readily improved for CDI at very minimal additional cost using simple flow control schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin Ramachandran
- Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Diego I Oyarzun
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Steven A Hawks
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94550, United States
| | - Michael Stadermann
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94550, United States
| | - Juan G Santiago
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States.
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29
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Ramachandran A, Hawks SA, Stadermann M, Santiago JG. Frequency analysis and resonant operation for efficient capacitive deionization. Water Res 2018; 144:581-591. [PMID: 30092504 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.07.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Capacitive deionization (CDI) performance metrics can vary widely with operating methods. Conventional CDI operating methods such as constant current and constant voltage show advantages in either energy or salt removal performance, but not both. We here develop a theory around and experimentally demonstrate a new operation for CDI that uses sinusoidal forcing voltage (or sinusoidal current). We use a dynamic system modeling approach, and quantify the frequency response (amplitude and phase) of CDI effluent concentration. Using a wide range of operating conditions, we demonstrate that CDI can be modeled as a linear time invariant system. We validate this model with experiments, and show that a sinusoid voltage operation can simultaneously achieve high salt removal and strong energy performance, thus very likely making it superior to other conventional operating methods. Based on the underlying coupled phenomena of electrical charge (and ionic) transfer with bulk advection in CDI, we derive and validate experimentally the concept of using sinusoidal voltage forcing functions to achieve resonance-type operation for CDI. Despite the complexities of the system, we find a simple relation for the resonant time scale: the resonant time period (frequency) is proportional (inversely proportional) to the geometric mean of the flow residence time and the electrical (RC) charging time. Operation at resonance implies the optimal balance between absolute amount of salt removed (in moles) and dilution (depending on the feed volume processed), thus resulting in the maximum average concentration reduction for the desalinated water. We further develop our model to generalize the resonant time-scale operation, and provide responses for square and triangular voltage waveforms as two examples. To this end, we develop a general tool that uses Fourier analysis to construct CDI effluent dynamics for arbitrary input waveforms. Using this tool, we show that most of the salt removal (∼95%) for square and triangular voltage forcing waveforms is achieved by the fundamental Fourier (sinusoidal) mode. The frequency of higher Fourier modes precludes high flow efficiency for these modes, so these modes consume additional energy for minimal additional salt removed. This deficiency of higher frequency modes further highlights the advantage of DC-offset sinusoidal forcing for CDI operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin Ramachandran
- Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Steven A Hawks
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94550, United States
| | - Michael Stadermann
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94550, United States
| | - Juan G Santiago
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States.
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30
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Ramachandran A, Hemmatifar A, Hawks SA, Stadermann M, Santiago JG. Self similarities in desalination dynamics and performance using capacitive deionization. Water Res 2018; 140:323-334. [PMID: 29734040 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Charge transfer and mass transport are two underlying mechanisms which are coupled in desalination dynamics using capacitive deionization (CDI). We developed simple reduced-order models based on a mixed reactor volume principle which capture the coupled dynamics of CDI operation using closed-form semi-analytical and analytical solutions. We use the models to identify and explore self-similarities in the dynamics among flow rate, current, and voltage for CDI cell operation including both charging and discharging cycles. The similarity approach identifies the specific combination of cell (e.g. capacitance, resistance) and operational parameters (e.g. flow rate, current) which determine a unique effluent dynamic response. We here demonstrate self-similarity using a conventional flow between CDI (fbCDI) architecture, and we hypothesize that our similarity approach has potential application to a wide range of designs. We performed an experimental study of these dynamics and used well-controlled experiments of CDI cell operation to validate and explore limits of the model. For experiments, we used a CDI cell with five electrode pairs and a standard flow between (electrodes) architecture. Guided by the model, we performed a series of experiments that demonstrate natural response of the CDI system. We also identify cell parameters and operation conditions which lead to self-similar dynamics under a constant current forcing function and perform a series of experiments by varying flowrate, currents, and voltage thresholds to demonstrate self-similarity. Based on this study, we hypothesize that the average differential electric double layer (EDL) efficiency (a measure of ion adsorption rate to EDL charging rate) is mainly dependent on user-defined voltage thresholds, whereas flow efficiency (measure of how well desalinated water is recovered from inside the cell) depends on cell volumes flowed during charging, which is determined by flowrate, current and voltage thresholds. Results of experiments strongly support this hypothesis. Results show that cycle efficiency and salt removal for a given flowrate and current are maximum when average EDL and flow efficiencies are approximately equal. We further explored a range of CC operations with varying flowrates, currents, and voltage thresholds using our similarity variables to highlight trade-offs among salt removal, energy, and throughput performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin Ramachandran
- Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Ali Hemmatifar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - Steven A Hawks
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94550, United States
| | - Michael Stadermann
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA, 94550, United States
| | - Juan G Santiago
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States.
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31
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Dykstra JE, Keesman KJ, Biesheuvel PM, van der Wal A. Theory of pH changes in water desalination by capacitive deionization. Water Res 2017; 119:178-186. [PMID: 28458059 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In electrochemical water desalination, a large difference in pH can develop between feed and effluent water. These pH changes can affect the long-term stability of membranes and electrodes. Often Faradaic reactions are implicated to explain these pH changes. However, quantitative theory has not been developed yet to underpin these considerations. We develop a theory for electrochemical water desalination which includes not only Faradaic reactions but also the fact that all ions in the water have different mobilities (diffusion coefficients). We quantify the latter effect by microscopic physics-based modeling of pH changes in Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI), a water desalination technology employing porous carbon electrodes and ion-exchange membranes. We derive a dynamic model and include the following phenomena: I) different mobilities of various ions, combined with acid-base equilibrium reactions; II) chemical surface charge groups in the micropores of the porous carbon electrodes, where electrical double layers are formed; and III) Faradaic reactions in the micropores. The theory predicts small pH changes during desalination cycles in MCDI if we only consider phenomena I) and II), but predicts that these pH changes can be much stronger if we consider phenomenon III) as well, which is in line with earlier statements in the literature on the relevance of Faradaic reactions to explain pH fluctuations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Dykstra
- Department of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands.
| | - K J Keesman
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands; Biobased Chemistry & Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - P M Biesheuvel
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - A van der Wal
- Department of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Evides, Schaardijk 150, 3063 NH, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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32
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Hemmatifar A, Palko JW, Stadermann M, Santiago JG. Energy breakdown in capacitive deionization. Water Res 2016; 104:303-311. [PMID: 27565115 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We explored the energy loss mechanisms in capacitive deionization (CDI). We hypothesize that resistive and parasitic losses are two main sources of energy losses. We measured contribution from each loss mechanism in water desalination with constant current (CC) charge/discharge cycling. Resistive energy loss is expected to dominate in high current charging cases, as it increases approximately linearly with current for fixed charge transfer (resistive power loss scales as square of current and charging time scales as inverse of current). On the other hand, parasitic loss is dominant in low current cases, as the electrodes spend more time at higher voltages. We built a CDI cell with five electrode pairs and standard flow between architecture. We performed a series of experiments with various cycling currents and cut-off voltages (voltage at which current is reversed) and studied these energy losses. To this end, we measured series resistance of the cell (contact resistances, resistance of wires, and resistance of solution in spacers) during charging and discharging from voltage response of a small amplitude AC current signal added to the underlying cycling current. We performed a separate set of experiments to quantify parasitic (or leakage) current of the cell versus cell voltage. We then used these data to estimate parasitic losses under the assumption that leakage current is primarily voltage (and not current) dependent. Our results confirmed that resistive and parasitic losses respectively dominate in the limit of high and low currents. We also measured salt adsorption and report energy-normalized adsorbed salt (ENAS, energy loss per ion removed) and average salt adsorption rate (ASAR). We show a clear tradeoff between ASAR and ENAS and show that balancing these losses leads to optimal energy efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Hemmatifar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - James W Palko
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Michael Stadermann
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, United States
| | - Juan G Santiago
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States.
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Trivedi S, Alameh K. Effect of vertically aligned carbon nanotube density on the water flux and salt rejection in desalination membranes. Springerplus 2016; 5:1158. [PMID: 27504256 PMCID: PMC4958082 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2783-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VACNT) membranes of different densities are developed and their performances are investigated. VACNT arrays of densities 5 × 109, 1010, 5 × 1010 and 1011 tubes cm−2, are initially grown on 1 cm × 1 cm silicon substrates using chemical vapour deposition. A VACNT membrane is realised by attaching a 300 μm-thick 1 cm × 1 cm VACNT array on silicon to a 4″ glass substrate, applying polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) through spin coating to fill the gaps between the VACNTs, and using a microtome to slice the VACNT–PDMS composite into 25-μm-thick membranes. Experimental results show that the permeability of the developed VACNT membranes increases with the density of the VACNTs, while the salt rejection is almost independent of the VACNT density. The best measured permeance is attained with a VACNT membrane having a CNT density of 1011 tubes cm−2 is 1203 LMH at 1 bar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samarth Trivedi
- Electron Science Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027 Australia
| | - Kamal Alameh
- Electron Science Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027 Australia
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Abstract
While single-layer nanoporous graphene (NPG) has shown promise as a reverse osmosis (RO) desalination membrane, multilayer graphene membranes can be synthesized more economically than the single-layer material. In this work, we build upon the knowledge gained to date toward single-layer graphene to explore how multilayer NPG might serve as a RO membrane in water desalination using classical molecular dynamic simulations. We show that, while multilayer NPG exhibits similarly promising desalination properties to single-layer membranes, their separation performance can be designed by manipulating various configurational variables in the multilayer case. This work establishes an atomic-level understanding of the effects of additional NPG layers, layer separation, and pore alignment on desalination performance, providing useful guidelines for the design of multilayer NPG membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Cohen-Tanugi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Li-Chiang Lin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Process and Energy, Delft University of Technology , Delft, 2628 CB, The Netherlands
| | - Jeffrey C Grossman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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35
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Dykstra JE, Zhao R, Biesheuvel PM, van der Wal A. Resistance identification and rational process design in Capacitive Deionization. Water Res 2016; 88:358-370. [PMID: 26512814 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Capacitive Deionization (CDI) is an electrochemical method for water desalination employing porous carbon electrodes. To enhance the performance of CDI, identification of electronic and ionic resistances in the CDI cell is important. In this work, we outline a method to identify these resistances. We illustrate our method by calculating the resistances in a CDI cell with membranes (MCDI) and by using this knowledge to improve the cell design. To identify the resistances, we derive a full-scale MCDI model. This model is validated against experimental data and used to calculate the ionic resistances across the MCDI cell. We present a novel way to measure the electronic resistances in a CDI cell, as well as the spacer channel thickness and porosity after assembly of the MCDI cell. We identify that for inflow salt concentrations of 20 mM the resistance is mainly located in the spacer channel and the external electrical circuit, not in the electrodes. Based on these findings, we show that the carbon electrode thickness can be increased without significantly increasing the energy consumption per mol salt removed, which has the advantage that the desalination time can be lengthened significantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Dykstra
- Department of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - R Zhao
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, The Netherlands; Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics & Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, 3663 North Zhongshan Road, 200062 Shanghai, China
| | - P M Biesheuvel
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 6, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - A van der Wal
- Department of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Bian Y, Yang X, Liang P, Jiang Y, Zhang C, Huang X. Enhanced desalination performance of membrane capacitive deionization cells by packing the flow chamber with granular activated carbon. Water Res 2015; 85:371-376. [PMID: 26360230 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Revised: 08/30/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A new design of membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) cell was constructed by packing the cell's flow chamber with granular activated carbon (GAC). The GAC packed-MCDI (GAC-MCDI) delivered higher (1.2-2.5 times) desalination rates than the regular MCDI at all test NaCl concentrations (∼ 100-1000 mg/L). The greatest performance enhancement by packed GAC was observed when treating saline water with an initial NaCl concentration of 100 mg/L. Several different GAC materials were tested and they all exhibited similar enhancement effects. Comparatively, packing the MCDI's flow chamber with glass beads (GB; non-conductive) and graphite granules (GG; conductive but with lower specific surface area than GAC) resulted in inferior desalination performance. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis showed that the GAC-MCDI had considerably smaller internal resistance than the regular MCDI (∼ 19.2 ± 1.2 Ω versus ∼ 1222 ± 15 Ω at 100 mg/L NaCl). The packed GAC also decreased the ionic resistance across the flow chamber (∼ 1.49 ± 0.05 Ω versus ∼ 1130 ± 12 Ω at 100 mg/L NaCl). The electric double layer (EDL) formed on the GAC surface was considered to store salt ions during electrosorption, and facilitate the ion transport in the flow chamber because of the higher ion conductivity in the EDLs than in the bulk solution, thereby enhancing the MCDI's desalination rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Bian
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Xufei Yang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Montana Tech of the University of Montana, Butte, MT 59701, USA
| | - Peng Liang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, PR China.
| | - Yong Jiang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Changyong Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Xia Huang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, PR China
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Omosebi A, Gao X, Rentschler J, Landon J, Liu K. Continuous operation of membrane capacitive deionization cells assembled with dissimilar potential of zero charge electrode pairs. J Colloid Interface Sci 2014; 446:345-51. [PMID: 25432447 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2014.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The performance of single stack membrane assisted capacitive deionization cells configured with pristine and nitric acid oxidized Zorflex (ZX) electrode pairs was evaluated. The potentials of zero charge for the pristine and oxidized electrodes were respectively -0.2V and 0.2V vs. SCE. Four cell combinations of the electrodes including a pristine anode-pristine cathode, oxidized anode-pristine cathode, pristine anode-oxidized cathode, and oxidized anode-oxidized cathode were investigated. When the PZC was located within the polarization window of the electrode, diminished performance was observed. The cells were operated at 1.2 V and based on potential distribution results, the effective working potentials were ∼0.9, 0.8, 1.2, and 1.1 V for the pristine anode-pristine cathode, oxidized anode-pristine cathode, pristine anode-oxidized cathode, and oxidized anode-oxidized cathode cells, respectively. The highest electrosorption capacity of 17 mg NaCl/g ZX was observed for the pristine anode-oxidized cathode cell, where both PZCs were outside of the polarization window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayokunle Omosebi
- Center for Applied Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40511, USA
| | - Xin Gao
- Center for Applied Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40511, USA
| | - Jeffery Rentschler
- Center for Applied Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40511, USA
| | - James Landon
- Center for Applied Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40511, USA.
| | - Kunlei Liu
- Center for Applied Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40511, USA.
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