Protein geranylgeranyltransferase-I of Trypanosoma cruzi

Rab32 is essential for maintaining functional acidocalcisomes, and for growth and infectivity of Trypanosoma cruzi

The contractile vacuole complex (CVC) of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, collects and expels excess water as a mechanism of regulatory volume decrease after hyposmotic stress; it also has a role in cell shrinking after hyperosmotic stress. Here, we report that, in addition to its role in osmoregulation, the CVC of T. cruzi has a role in the biogenesis of acidocalcisomes. Expression of dominant-negative mutants of the CVC-located small GTPase Rab32 (TcCLB.506289.80) results in lower numbers of less-electron-dense acidocalcisomes, lower content of polyphosphate, lower capacity for acidocalcisome acidification and Ca(2+) uptake that is driven by the vacuolar proton pyrophosphatase and the Ca(2+)-ATPase, respectively, as well as less-infective parasites, revealing the role of this organelle in parasite infectivity. By using fluorescence, electron microscopy and electron tomography analyses, we provide further evidence of the active contact of acidocalcisomes with the CVC, indicating an active exchange of proteins between the two organelles.

Targeted reengineering of protein geranylgeranyltransferase type I selectivity functionally implicates active-site residues in protein-substrate recognition

Posttranslational modifications are vital for the function of many proteins. Prenylation is one such modification, wherein protein geranylgeranyltransferase type I (GGTase-I) or protein farnesyltransferase (FTase) modify proteins by attaching a 20- or 15-carbon isoprenoid group, respectively, to a cysteine residue near the C-terminus of a target protein. These enzymes require a C-terminal Ca1a2X sequence on their substrates, with the a1, a2, and X residues serving as substrate-recognition elements for FTase and/or GGTase-I. While crystallographic structures of rat GGTase-I show a tightly packed and hydrophobic a2 residue binding pocket, consistent with a preference for moderately sized a2 residues in GGTase-I substrates, the functional impact of enzyme-substrate contacts within this active site remains to be determined. Using site-directed mutagenesis and peptide substrate structure-activity studies, we have identified specific active-site residues within rat GGTase-I involved in substrate recognition and developed novel GGTase-I variants with expanded/altered substrate selectivity. The ability to drastically alter GGTase-I selectivity mirrors similar behavior observed in FTase but employs mutation of a distinct set of structurally homologous active-site residues. Our work demonstrates that tunable selectivity may be a general phenomenon among multispecific enzymes involved in posttranslational modification and raises the possibility of variable substrate selectivity among GGTase-I orthologues from different organisms. Furthermore, the GGTase-I variants developed herein can serve as tools for studying GGTase-I substrate selectivity and the effects of prenylation pathway modifications on specific proteins.

Thiol-based posttranslational modifications in parasites

SIGNIFICANCE

Cysteine residues of proteins participate in the catalysis of biochemical reactions, are crucial for redox reactions, and influence protein structure by the formation of disulfide bonds. Covalent posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of cysteine residues are important mediators of redox regulation and signaling by coupling protein activity to the cellular redox state, and moreover influence stability, function, and localization of proteins. A diverse group of protozoan and metazoan parasites are a major cause of diseases in humans, such as malaria, African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, filariasis, and schistosomiasis.

RECENT ADVANCES

Human parasites undergo dramatic morphological and metabolic changes while they pass complex life cycles and adapt to changing environments in host and vector. These processes are in part regulated by PTMs of parasitic proteins. In human parasites, posttranslational cysteine modifications are involved in crucial cellular events such as signal transduction (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), redox regulation of proteins (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), protein trafficking and subcellular localization (palmitoylation and prenylation), as well as invasion into and egress from host cells (palmitoylation). This review focuses on the occurrence and mechanisms of these cysteine modifications in parasites.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Studies on cysteine modifications in human parasites are so far largely based on in vitro experiments.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The in vivo regulation of cysteine modifications and their role in parasite development will be of great interest in order to understand redox signaling in parasites.

Cryptic parasite revealed improved prospects for treatment and control of human cryptosporidiosis through advanced technologies

Cryptosporidium is an important genus of parasitic protozoa of humans and other vertebrates and is a major cause of intestinal disease globally. Unlike many common causes of infectious enteritis, there are no widely available, effective vaccine or drug-based intervention strategies for Cryptosporidium, and control is focused mainly on prevention. This approach is particularly deficient for infections of severely immunocompromised and/or suppressed, the elderly or malnourished people. However, cryptosporidiosis also presents a significant burden on immunocompetent individuals, and can, for example have lasting effects on the physical and mental development of children infected at an early age. In the last few decades, our understanding of Cryptosporidium has expanded significantly in numerous areas, including the parasite life-cycle, the processes of excystation, cellular invasion and reproduction, and the interplay between parasite and host. Nonetheless, despite extensive research, many aspects of the biology of Cryptosporidium remain unknown, and treatment and control are challenging. Here, we review the current state of knowledge of Cryptosporidium, with a focus on major advances arising from the recently completed genome sequences of the two species of greatest relevance in humans, namely Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum. In addition, we discuss the potential of next-generation sequencing technologies, new advances in in silico analyses and progress in in vitro culturing systems to bridge these gaps and to lead toward effective treatment and control of cryptosporidiosis.

An essential farnesylated kinesin in Trypanosoma brucei

Kinesins are a family of motor proteins conserved throughout eukaryotes. In our present study we characterize a novel kinesin, Kinesin(CaaX), orthologs of which are only found in the kinetoplastids and not other eukaryotes. Kinesin(CaaX) has the CVIM amino acids at the C-terminus, and CVIM was previously shown to be an ideal signal for protein farnesylation in T. brucei. In this study we show Kinesin(CaaX) is farnesylated using radiolabeling studies and that farnesylation is dependent on the CVIM motif. Using RNA interference, we show Kinesin(CaaX) is essential for T. brucei proliferation. Additionally RNAi Kinesin(CaaX) depleted T. brucei are 4 fold more sensitive to the protein farneysltransferase (PFT) inhibitor LN-59, suggesting that Kinesin(CaaX) is a target of PFT inhibitors' action to block proliferation of T. brucei. Using tetracycline-induced exogenous tagged Kinesin(CaaX) and Kinesin(CVIMdeletion) (non-farnesylated Kinesin) expression lines in T. brucei, we demonstrate Kinesin(CaaX) is farnesylated in T. brucei cells and this farnesylation has functional effects. In cells expressing a CaaX-deleted version of Kinesin, the localization is more diffuse which suggests correct localization depends on farnesylation. Through our investigation of cell cycle, nucleus and kinetoplast quantitation and immunofluorescence assays an important role is suggested for Kinesin(CaaX) in the separation of nuclei and kinetoplasts during and after they have been replicated. Taken together, our work suggests Kinesin(CaaX) is a target of PFT inhibition of T. brucei cell proliferation and Kinesin(CaaX) functions through both the motor and farnesyl groups.

Targeting protein prenylation for cancer therapy

Protein farnesylation and geranylgeranylation, together referred to as prenylation, are lipid post-translational modifications that are required for the transforming activity of many oncogenic proteins, including some RAS family members. This observation prompted the development of inhibitors of farnesyltransferase (FT) and geranylgeranyl-transferase 1 (GGT1) as potential anticancer drugs. In this Review, we discuss the mechanisms by which FT and GGT1 inhibitors (FTIs and GGTIs, respectively) affect signal transduction pathways, cell cycle progression, proliferation and cell survival. In contrast to their preclinical efficacy, only a small subset of patients responds to FTIs. Identifying tumours that depend on farnesylation for survival remains a challenge, and strategies to overcome this are discussed. One GGTI has recently entered the clinic, and the safety and efficacy of GGTIs await results from clinical trials.