Telomere-end processing the terminal nucleotides of human chromosomes

Managing telomerase and telomere dysfunction in acral melanoma

Acral Lentiginous Melanoma is a rare and aggressive subtype of melanoma that commonly affects the palms, soles, and nail beds. It is more prevalent in individuals with darker skin tones, including Asian, African, and Hispanic populations. Unlike cutaneous melanomas, acral melanoma is not associated with UV exposure and has a distinct genetic and molecular profile, underscoring the need for tailored research and treatment strategies. Standard treatments, such as surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapies, have shown limited success for this melanoma subtype, highlighting the urgency of developing more effective interventions. Telomerase is an enzyme that extends telomeres and is a key target in acral melanoma which exhibits' high telomerase activity, driven by mutations in the telomerase reverse transcriptase TERT promoter, which contributes to uncontrolled tumor cell proliferation, cancer cell immortality, and resistance to conventional therapies. Therefore, targeting telomerase presents a promising therapeutic avenue for acral melanoma patients who do not respond well to current treatments. Several approaches for targeting telomerase deregulation have been developed, and their potential for the management of acral melanoma is discussed in this review. Specifically, the promise of telomerase-targeted therapies for acral melanoma is emphasized and explores how these strategies could improve outcomes for patients with this challenging skin cancer. By focusing on the role of telomerase in tumorigenesis and treatment resistance, telomerase-targeted strategies hold potential as a foundational component of therapies for acral melanoma, complementing existing approaches.

Paternal effects on telomere integrity during the sperm-to-embryo transition

Telomeres are essential nucleoprotein structures that preserve our terminal DNA sequence and protect chromosome ends from fusion. Our vast knowledge of telomeres comes almost entirely from studies of healthy and diseased somatic cells. However, building evidence suggests that the molecules and mechanisms required for telomere integrity in somatic cells are insufficient to preserve telomere integrity during the sperm-to-embryo transition. Here, we review this growing body of work on telomere 'paternal effects', wherein zygotic telomere integrity is determined not by the genotype of the zygote but instead by the genotype of the father. Direct inheritance of sperm-specific proteins establishes paternal telomere epigenetic identity, while direct inheritance of sperm telomere length contributes to telomere length inheritance. Together, these investigations of telomere integrity through the sperm-to-embryo transition reveal potent paternal effects on zygotic telomere functions, with implications for human infertility.

A Review of Telomere Attrition in Cancer and Aging: Current Molecular Insights and Future Therapeutic Approaches

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

As cells divide, telomeres shorten through a phenomenon known as telomere attrition, which leads to unavoidable senescence of cells. Unprotected DNA exponentially increases the odds of mutations, which can evolve into premature aging disorders and tumorigenesis. There has been growing academic and clinical interest in exploring this duality and developing optimal therapeutic strategies to combat telomere attrition in aging and cellular immortality in cancer. The purpose of this review is to provide an updated overview of telomere biology and therapeutic tactics to address aging and cancer.

METHODS

We used the Rayyan platform to review the PubMed database and examined the ClinicalTrial.gov registry to gain insight into clinical trials and their results.

RESULTS

Cancer cells activate telomerase or utilize alternative lengthening of telomeres to escape telomere shortening, leading to near immortality. Contrarily, normal cells experience telomeric erosion, contributing to premature aging disorders, such as Werner syndrome and Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria, and (2) aging-related diseases, such as neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

The literature presents several promising therapeutic approaches to potentially balance telomere maintenance in aging and shortening in cancer. This review highlights gaps in knowledge and points to the potential of these optimal interventions in preclinical and clinical studies to inform future research in cancer and aging.

Techniques for assessing telomere length: A methodological review

Telomeres are located at the ends of chromosomes and have specific sequences with a distinctive structure that safeguards genes. They possess capping structures that protect chromosome ends from fusion events and ensure chromosome stability. Telomeres shorten in length during each cycle of cell division. When this length reaches a certain threshold, it can lead to genomic instability, thus being implicated in various diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. The possibility of telomeres serving as a biomarker for aging and age-related disease is being explored, and their significance is still under study. This is because post-mitotic cells, which are mature cells that do not undergo mitosis, do not experience telomere shortening due to age. Instead, other causes, for example, exposure to oxidative stress, can directly damage the telomeres, causing genomic instability. Nonetheless, a general agreement has been established that measuring telomere length offers valuable insights and forms a crucial foundation for analyzing gene expression and epigenetic data. Numerous approaches have been developed to accurately measure telomere lengths. In this review, we summarize various methods and their advantages and limitations for assessing telomere length.

High-throughput single telomere analysis using DNA microarray and fluorescent in situ hybridization

The human telomere system is highly dynamic. Both short and long leucocyte average telomere lengths (aTL) are associated with an increased risk of cancer and early death, illustrating the complex relationship between TL and human health and the importance of assessing TL distributions with single TL analysis. A DNA microarray and telomere fluorescent in situ hybridization (DNA-array-FISH) approach was developed to measure the base-pair (bp) lengths of single telomeres. On average 32000 telomeres were measured per DNA sample with one microarray chip assaying 96 test DNA samples. Various telomere parameters, i.e. aTL and the frequency of short/long telomeres, were computed to delineate TL distribution. The intra-assay and inter-assay coefficient of variations of aTL ranged from 1.37% to 3.98%. The correlation coefficient (r) of aTL in repeated measurements ranged from 0.91 to 1.00, demonstrating high measurement precision. aTLs measured by DNA-array-FISH predicted aTLs measured by terminal restriction fragment (TRF) analysis with r ranging 0.87-0.99. A new accurate and high-throughput method has been developed to measure the bp lengths of single telomeres. The large number of single TL data provides an opportunity for an in-depth analysis of telomere dynamics and the complex relationship between telomere and age-related diseases.

Dissecting the oncogenic mechanisms of POT1 cancer mutations through deep scanning mutagenesis

Mutations in the shelterin protein POT1 are associated with diverse cancers, but their role in cancer progression remains unclear. To resolve this, we performed deep scanning mutagenesis in POT1 locally haploid human stem cells to assess the impact of POT1 variants on cellular viability and cancer-associated telomeric phenotypes. Though POT1 is essential, frame-shift mutants are rescued by chemical ATR inhibition, indicating that POT1 is not required for telomere replication or lagging strand synthesis. In contrast, a substantial fraction of clinically-validated pathogenic mutations support normal cellular proliferation, but still drive ATR-dependent telomeric DNA damage signaling and ATR-independent telomere elongation. Moreover, this class of cancer-associated POT1 variants elongates telomeres more rapidly than POT1 frame-shifts, indicating they actively drive oncogenesis and are not simple loss-of-function mutations.

A persistent variant telomere sequence in a human pedigree

The telomere sequence, TTAGGG, is conserved across all vertebrates and plays an essential role in suppressing the DNA damage response by binding a set of proteins termed shelterin. Changes in the telomere sequence impair shelterin binding, initiate a DNA damage response, and are toxic to cells. Here we identify a family with a variant in the telomere template sequence of telomerase, the enzyme responsible for telomere elongation, that led to a non-canonical telomere sequence. The variant is inherited across at least one generation and one family member reports no significant medical concerns despite ~9% of their telomeres converting to the novel sequence. The variant template disrupts telomerase repeat addition processivity and decreased the binding of the telomere-binding protein POT1. Despite these disruptions, the sequence is readily incorporated into cellular chromosomes. Incorporation of a variant sequence prevents POT1-mediated inhibition of telomerase suggesting that incorporation of a variant sequence may influence telomere addition. These findings demonstrate that telomeres can tolerate substantial degeneracy while remaining functional and provide insights as to how incorporation of a non-canonical telomere sequence might alter telomere length dynamics.

BG4 antibody can recognize telomeric G-quadruplexes harboring destabilizing base modifications and lesions

BG4 is a single-chain variable fragment antibody shown to bind various G-quadruplex (GQ) topologies with high affinity and specificity, and to detect GQ in cells, including GQ structures formed within telomeric TTAGGG repeats. Here, we used ELISA and single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) detection to test how various lengths and GQ destabilizing base modifications in telomeric DNA constructs alter BG4 binding. We observed high-affinity BG4 binding to telomeric GQ independent of telomere length, although three telomeric repeat constructs that cannot form stable intramolecular GQ showed reduced affinity. A single guanine substitution with 8-aza-7-deaza-G, T, A, or C reduced affinity to varying degrees depending on the location and base type, whereas two G substitutions in the telomeric construct dramatically reduced or abolished binding. Substitution with damaged bases 8-oxoguanine and O6-methylguanine failed to prevent BG4 binding although affinity was reduced depending on lesion location. SiMPull combined with FRET revealed that BG4 binding promotes folding of telomeric GQ harboring a G to T substitution or 8-oxoguanine. Atomic force microscopy revealed that BG4 binds telomeric GQ with a 1:1 stoichiometry. Collectively, our data suggest that BG4 can recognize partially folded telomeric GQ structures and promote telomeric GQ stability.

DNA Damage Atlas: an atlas of DNA damage and repair

DNA damage and its improper repair are the major source of genomic alterations responsible for many human diseases, particularly cancer. To aid researchers in understanding the underlying mechanisms of genome instability, a number of genome-wide profiling approaches have been developed to monitor DNA damage and repair events. The rapid accumulation of published datasets underscores the critical necessity of a comprehensive database to curate sequencing data on DNA damage and repair intermediates. Here, we present DNA Damage Atlas (DDA, http://www.bioinformaticspa.com/DDA/), the first large-scale repository of DNA damage and repair information. Currently, DDA comprises 6,030 samples from 262 datasets by 59 technologies, covering 16 species, 10 types of damage and 135 treatments. Data collected in DDA was processed through a standardized workflow, including quality checks, hotspots identification and a series of feature characterization for the hotspots. Notably, DDA encompasses analyses of highly repetitive regions, ribosomal DNA and telomere. DDA offers a user-friendly interface that facilitates browsing, searching, genome browser visualization, hotspots comparison and data downloading, enabling convenient and thorough exploration for datasets of interest. In summary, DDA will stand as a valuable resource for research in genome instability and its association with diseases.

Telomerase-Mediated Anti-Ageing Interventions

The ageing process involves a gradual decline of chromosome integrity throughout an organism's lifespan. Telomeres are protective DNA-protein complexes that cap the ends of linear chromosomes in eukaryotic organisms. Telomeric DNA consists of long stretches of short "TTAGGG" repeats that are conserved across most eukaryotes including humans. Telomeres shorten progressively with each round of DNA replication due to the inability of conventional DNA polymerase to completely replicate the chromosome ends, known as the "end-replication problem". The telomerase enzyme counteracts the telomeric DNA loss by de novo addition of telomeric repeats onto chromosomal ends. Germline and stem cells maintain significant levels of telomerase activity to maintain telomere length and can divide almost indefinitely. However, the differentiation of stem cells accompanies the inactivation of telomerase gene expression, resulting in the progressive shortening of telomeres in somatic cells over successive divisions. Critically short telomeres elicit and sustain a persistent DNA damage response leading to permanent growth arrest of cells known as cellular senescence, a hallmark of cellular ageing. The accumulation of senescent cells in tissues and organs contributes to organismal ageing. Thus, the prevention of telomere shortening is a promising means to delay or even reverse cellular ageing. In this chapter, we summarize potential anti-ageing interventions that mitigate telomere shortening through increasing telomerase level or activity and discuss these strategies' risks, benefits, and future outlooks.

Telomeres as hotspots for innate immunity and inflammation

Aging is marked by the gradual accumulation of deleterious changes that disrupt organ function, creating an altered physiological state that is permissive for the onset of prevalent human diseases. While the exact mechanisms governing aging remain a subject of ongoing research, there are several cellular and molecular hallmarks that contribute to this biological process. This review focuses on two factors, namely telomere dysfunction and inflammation, which have emerged as crucial contributors to the aging process. We aim to discuss the mechanistic connections between these two distinct hallmarks and provide compelling evidence highlighting the loss of telomere protection as a driver of pro-inflammatory states associated with aging. By reevaluating the interplay between telomeres, innate immunity, and inflammation, we present novel perspectives on the etiology of aging and its associated diseases.

Telomere dynamics and reproduction

The oocyte, a long-lived, postmitotic cell, is the locus of reproductive aging in women. Female germ cells replicate only during fetal life and age throughout reproductive life. Mechanisms of oocyte aging include the accumulation of oxidative damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and disruption of proteins, including cohesion. Nobel Laureate Bob Edwards also discovered a "production line" during oogonial replication in the mouse, wherein the last oocytes to ovulate in the adult-derived from the last oogonia to exit mitotic replication in the fetus. On the basis of this, we proposed a two-hit "telomere theory of reproductive aging" to integrate the myriad features of oocyte aging. The first hit was that oocytes remaining in older women traversed more cell cycles during fetal oogenesis. The second hit was that oocytes accumulated more environmental and endogenous oxidative damage throughout the life of the woman. Telomeres (Ts) could mediate both of these aspects of oocyte aging. Telomeres provide a "mitotic clock," with T attrition an inevitable consequence of cell division because of the end replication problem. Telomere's guanine-rich sequence renders them especially sensitive to oxidative damage, even in postmitotic cells. Telomerase, the reverse transcriptase that restores Ts, is better at maintaining than elongating T. Moreover, telomerase remains inactive during much of oogenesis and early development. Oocytes are left with short Ts, on the brink of viability. In support of this theory, mice with induced T attrition and women with naturally occurring telomeropathy suffer diminished ovarian reserve, abnormal embryo development, and infertility. In contrast, sperm are produced throughout the life of the male by a telomerase-active progenitor, spermatogonia, resulting in the longest Ts in the body. In mice, cleavage-stage embryos elongate Ts via "alternative lengthening of telomeres," a recombination-based mechanism rarely encountered outside of telomerase-deficient cancers. Many questions about Ts and reproduction are raised by these findings: does the "normal" T attrition observed in human oocytes contribute to their extraordinarily high rate of meiotic nondisjunction? Does recombination-based T elongation render embryos susceptible to mitotic nondisjunction (and mosaicism)? Can some features of Ts serve as markers of oocyte quality?

Biological clocks as age estimation markers in animals: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Various biological attributes associated with individual fitness in animals change predictably over the lifespan of an organism. Therefore, the study of animal ecology and the work of conservationists frequently relies upon the ability to assign animals to functionally relevant age classes to model population fitness. Several approaches have been applied to determining individual age and, while these methods have proved useful, they are not without limitations and often lack standardisation or are only applicable to specific species. For these reasons, scientists have explored the potential use of biological clocks towards creating a universal age-determination method. Two biological clocks, tooth layer annulation and otolith layering have found universal appeal. Both methods are highly invasive and most appropriate for post-mortem age-at-death estimation. More recently, attributes of cellular ageing previously explored in humans have been adapted to studying ageing in animals for the use of less-invasive molecular methods for determining age. Here, we review two such methods, assessment of methylation and telomere length, describing (i) what they are, (ii) how they change with age, and providing (iii) a summary and meta-analysis of studies that have explored their utility in animal age determination. We found that both attributes have been studied across multiple vertebrate classes, however, telomere studies were used before methylation studies and telomere length has been modelled in nearly twice as many studies. Telomere length studies included in the review often related changes to stress responses and illustrated that telomere length is sensitive to environmental and social stressors and, in the absence of repair mechanisms such as telomerase or alternative lengthening modes, lacks the ability to recover. Methylation studies, however, while also detecting sensitivity to stressors and toxins, illustrated the ability to recover from such stresses after a period of accelerated ageing, likely due to constitutive expression or reactivation of repair enzymes such as DNA methyl transferases. We also found that both studied attributes have parentally heritable features, but the mode of inheritance differs among taxa and may relate to heterogamy. Our meta-analysis included more than 40 species in common for methylation and telomere length, although both analyses included at least 60 age-estimation models. We found that methylation outperforms telomere length in terms of predictive power evidenced from effect sizes (more than double that observed for telomeres) and smaller prediction intervals. Both methods produced age correlation models using similar sample sizes and were able to classify individuals into young, middle, or old age classes with high accuracy. Our review and meta-analysis illustrate that both methods are well suited to studying age in animals and do not suffer significantly from variation due to differences in the lifespan of the species, genome size, karyotype, or tissue type but rather that quantitative method, patterns of inheritance, and environmental factors should be the main considerations. Thus, provided that complex factors affecting the measured trait can be accounted for, both methylation and telomere length are promising targets to develop as biomarkers for age determination in animals.

Telomouse-a mouse model with human-length telomeres generated by a single amino acid change in RTEL1

Telomeres, the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, protect genome integrity and enable cell proliferation. Maintaining optimal telomere length in the germline and throughout life limits the risk of cancer and enables healthy aging. Telomeres in the house mouse, Mus musculus, are about five times longer than human telomeres, limiting the use of this common laboratory animal for studying the contribution of telomere biology to aging and cancer. We identified a key amino acid variation in the helicase RTEL1, naturally occurring in the short-telomere mouse species M. spretus. Introducing this variation into M. musculus is sufficient to reduce the telomere length set point in the germline and generate mice with human-length telomeres. While these mice are fertile and appear healthy, the regenerative capacity of their colonic epithelium is compromised. The engineered Telomouse reported here demonstrates a dominant role of RTEL1 in telomere length regulation and provides a unique model for aging and cancer.

Human POT1 protects the telomeric ds-ss DNA junction by capping the 5' end of the chromosome

Protection of telomeres 1 (POT1) is the 3' single-stranded overhang-binding telomeric protein that prevents an ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) DNA damage response (DDR) at chromosome ends. What precludes the DDR machinery from accessing the telomeric double-stranded-single-stranded junction is unknown. We demonstrate that human POT1 binds this junction by recognizing the phosphorylated 5' end of the chromosome. High-resolution crystallographic structures reveal that the junction is capped by POT1 through a "POT-hole" surface, the mutation of which compromises junction protection in vitro and telomeric 5'-end definition and DDR suppression in human cells. Whereas both mouse POT1 paralogs bind the single-stranded overhang, POT1a, not POT1b, contains a POT-hole and binds the junction, which explains POT1a's sufficiency for end protection. Our study shifts the paradigm for DDR suppression at telomeres by highlighting the importance of protecting the double-stranded-single-stranded junction.

CST-Polα/Primase: the second telomere maintenance machine

It has been known for decades that telomerase extends the 3' end of linear eukaryotic chromosomes and dictates the telomeric repeat sequence based on the template in its RNA. However, telomerase does not mitigate sequence loss at the 5' ends of chromosomes, which results from lagging strand DNA synthesis and nucleolytic processing. Therefore, a second enzyme is needed to keep telomeres intact: DNA polymerase α/Primase bound to Ctc1-Stn1-Ten1 (CST). CST-Polα/Primase maintains telomeres through a fill-in reaction that replenishes the lost sequences at the 5' ends. CST not only serves to maintain telomeres but also determines their length by keeping telomerase from overelongating telomeres. Here we discuss recent data on the evolution, structure, function, and recruitment of mammalian CST-Polα/Primase, highlighting the role of this complex and telomere length control in human disease.

Telomere Length, a New Biomarker of Male (in)Fertility? A Systematic Review of the Literature

Male factors are suspected in around half cases of infertility, of which up to 40% are diagnosed as idiopathic. In the context of a continuously increased resort to ART and increased decline of semen parameters, it is of greatest interest to evaluate an additional potential biomarker of sperm quality. According to PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review of the literature selected studies evaluating telomere length in sperm and/or in leukocytes as a potential male fertility biomarker. Twenty-two publications (3168 participants) were included in this review of experimental evidence. For each study, authors determined if there was a correlation between telomere length and semen parameters or fertility outcomes. Of the 13 studies concerning sperm telomere length (STL) and semen parameters, ten found an association between short STL and altered parameters. Concerning the impact of STL on ART results, the data are conflicting. However, eight of the 13 included studies about fertility found significantly longer sperm telomeres in fertile men than in infertile men. In leukocytes, the seven studies reported conflicting findings. Shorter sperm telomeres appear to be associated with altered semen parameters or male infertility. Telomere length may be considered as a new molecular marker of spermatogenesis and sperm quality, and thus is related to male fertility potential. However, additional studies are needed to define the place of the STL in the assessment of individual fertility.

Roles of G4-DNA and G4-RNA in Class Switch Recombination and Additional Regulations in B-Lymphocytes

Mature B cells notably diversify immunoglobulin (Ig) production through class switch recombination (CSR), allowing the junction of distant "switch" (S) regions. CSR is initiated by activation-induced deaminase (AID), which targets cytosines adequately exposed within single-stranded DNA of transcribed targeted S regions, with a specific affinity for WRCY motifs. In mammals, G-rich sequences are additionally present in S regions, forming canonical G-quadruplexes (G4s) DNA structures, which favor CSR. Small molecules interacting with G4-DNA (G4 ligands), proved able to regulate CSR in B lymphocytes, either positively (such as for nucleoside diphosphate kinase isoforms) or negatively (such as for RHPS4). G4-DNA is also implicated in the control of transcription, and due to their impact on both CSR and transcriptional regulation, G4-rich sequences likely play a role in the natural history of B cell malignancies. Since G4-DNA stands at multiple locations in the genome, notably within oncogene promoters, it remains to be clarified how it can more specifically promote legitimate CSR in physiology, rather than pathogenic translocation. The specific regulatory role of G4 structures in transcribed DNA and/or in corresponding transcripts and recombination hereby appears as a major issue for understanding immune responses and lymphomagenesis.

High-throughput telomere length measurement at nucleotide resolution using the PacBio high fidelity sequencing platform

Telomeres are specialized nucleoprotein structures at the ends of linear chromosomes. The progressive shortening of steady-state telomere length in normal human somatic cells is a promising biomarker for age-associated diseases. However, there remain substantial challenges in quantifying telomere length due to the lack of high-throughput method with nucleotide resolution for individual telomere. Here, we describe a workflow to capture telomeres using newly designed telobaits in human culture cell lines as well as clinical patient samples and measure their length accurately at nucleotide resolution using single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing. Our results also reveal the extreme heterogeneity of telomeric variant sequences (TVSs) that are dispersed throughout the telomere repeat region. The presence of TVSs disrupts the continuity of the canonical (5'-TTAGGG-3')n telomere repeats, which affects the binding of shelterin complexes at the chromosomal ends and telomere protection. These findings may have profound implications in human aging and diseases.

DNA G-Quadruplex in Human Telomeres and Oncogene Promoters: Structures, Functions, and Small Molecule Targeting

DNA G-quadruplex secondary structures formed in guanine-rich human telomeres and oncogene promoters are functionally important and have emerged as a promising new class of cancer-specific drug targets. These globular intramolecular structures are stabilized by K+ or Na+ and form readily under physiological solution conditions. Moreover, G-quadruplexes are epigenetic features and can alter chromatin structure and function together with interactive proteins. Here, we discuss our efforts over the last two decades to understand the structures and functions of DNA G-quadruplexes formed in key oncogene promoters and human telomeres and their interactions with small molecules. Using high-field NMR spectroscopy, we determined the high-resolution structures of physiologically relevant telomeric G-quadruplexes in K+ solution with a major form (hybrid-2) and a minor form (hybrid-1), as well as a two-tetrad intermediate. The intrinsic structural polymorphism of telomeric DNA may be important for the biology of human telomeres, and we proposed a model for the interconversion. More recently, we have worked on G-quadruplexes of MYC, BCL2, PDGFR-β, VEGF, and k-RAS oncogene promoters. We determined the structure of the major G-quadruplex formed in the MYC promoter, a prototype for parallel G-quadruplexes. It is the first example of the parallel-stranded G3NG3 structure motif with a 1-nt loop, which is prevalent in promoter sequences and likely evolutionarily selected to initiate folding. Remarkably, the parallel MYC promoter G-quadruplexes are highly stable. Additionally, we determined the molecular structures of G-quadruplexes formed in human BCL2, VEGF, and PDGFR-β promoters, each adopting a unique structure. For example, the BCL2 promoter contains distinct interchangeable G-quadruplexes in two adjacent regions, suggesting precise regulation by different proteins. The PDGFR-β promoter adopts unique "broken-strand" and vacancy G-quadruplexes, which can be recognized by cellular guanine metabolites for a potential regulatory role.Structural information on G-quadruplexes in complex with small-molecules is critical for understanding specific recognition and structure-based rational drug design. Our studies show that many G-quadruplexes contain unique structural features such as capping and loop structures, allowing specific recognition by drugs and protein. This represents a paradigm shift in understanding DNA as a drug target: Rather than a uniform, nonselective binding site in duplex DNA, the G-quadruplex is being pursued as a new class of selectively targetable drug receptors. We focus on targeting the biologically relevant MYC promoter G-quadruplex (MycG4) with small molecules and have determined its first and additional drug complex structures. Very recently, we have discovered clinically tested indenoisoquinolines as strong MycG4 binders and potent MYC inhibitors. We have also discovered drugs targeting the unique dGMP-bound-vG4 formed in the PDGFR-β promoter. Moreover, we determined the complex structures of the first small molecules that specifically recognize the physiologically relevant human telomeric G-quadruplexes. Unlike the previously recognized dogma that the optimal G-quadruplex ligands are large aromatic or cyclic compounds, our results suggest that smaller asymmetric compounds with appropriate functional groups are better choices to specifically bind G-quadruplexes. This body of work lays a strong foundation for future work aimed at understanding the cellular functions of G-quadruplexes and G-quadruplex-targeted drug design.

Ion-Dependent Conformational Plasticity of Telomeric G-Hairpins and G-Quadruplexes

Telomeric DNA is guanine-rich and can adopt structures such as G-quadruplexes (GQs) and G-hairpins. Telomeric GQs influence genome stability and telomerase activity, making understanding of enzyme-GQ interactions and dynamics important for potential drug design. GQs have a characteristic tetrad core, which is connected by loop regions. Within this architecture are G-hairpins, fold-back motifs that are thought to represent the first intermediate in GQ folding. To better understand the relationship between G-hairpin motifs and GQs, we performed polarizable simulations of a two-tetrad telomeric GQ and an isolated SC11 telomeric G-hairpin. The telomeric GQ contains a G-triad, which functions as part of the tetrad core or linker regions, depending on local conformational change. This triad and another motif below the tetrad core frequently bound ions and may represent druggable sites. Further, we observed the unbiased formation of a G-triad and a G-tetrad in simulations of the SC11 G-hairpin and found that cations can be partially hydrated while facilitating the formation of these motifs. Finally, we demonstrated that K⁺ ions form specific interactions with guanine bases, while Na⁺ ions interact nonspecifically with bases in the structure. Together, these simulations provide new insights into the influence of ions on GQs, G-hairpins, and G-triad motifs.

Telomeric Repeat-Containing RNA (TERRA): A Review of the Literature and First Assessment in Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphomas

Telomeric Repeat-containing RNA (TERRA) are long non-coding RNAs transcribed from telomeric DNA sequences from multiple chromosome ends. Major research efforts have been made to understand TERRA roles and functions in several physiological and pathological processes. We summarize herein available data regarding TERRA’s roles in human cells and we report the first investigation in cutaneous T-cells lymphomas (CTCL) using real-time PCR. Among the TERRA analysed, our data suggest a particular role for TERRA 16p downregulation and TERRA 11q upregulation in CTCL lymphomagenesis.

Telomeric replication stress: the beginning and the end for alternative lengthening of telomeres cancers

Telomeres are nucleoprotein structures that cap the ends of linear chromosomes. Telomeric DNA comprises terminal tracts of G-rich tandem repeats, which are inherently difficult for the replication machinery to navigate. Structural aberrations that promote activation of the alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT) pathway of telomere maintenance exacerbate replication stress at ALT telomeres, driving fork stalling and fork collapse. This form of telomeric DNA damage perpetuates recombination-mediated repair pathways and break-induced telomere synthesis. The relationship between replication stress and DNA repair is tightly coordinated for the purpose of regulating telomere length in ALT cells, but has been shown to be experimentally manipulatable. This raises the intriguing possibility that induction of replication stress can be used as a means to cause toxic levels of DNA damage at ALT telomeres, thereby selectively disrupting the viability of ALT cancers.

Ruthenium(II) Polypyridyl Complexes and Their Use as Probes and Photoreactive Agents for G-quadruplexes Labelling

Due to their optical and electrochemical properties, ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes have been used in a wide array of applications. Since the discovery of the light-switch ON effect of [Ru(bpy)2dppz]2+ when interacting with DNA, the design of new Ru(II) complexes as light-up probes for specific regions of DNA has been intensively explored. Amongst them, G-quadruplexes (G4s) are of particular interest. These structures formed by guanine-rich parts of DNA and RNA may be associated with a wide range of biological events. However, locating them and understanding their implications in biological pathways has proven challenging. Elegant approaches to tackle this challenge relies on the use of photoprobes capable of marking, reversibly or irreversibly, these G4s. Indeed, Ru(II) complexes containing ancillary π-deficient TAP ligands can create a covalently linked adduct with G4s after a photoinduced electron transfer from a guanine residue to the excited complex. Through careful design of the ligands, high selectivity of interaction with G4 structures can be achieved. This allows the creation of specific Ru(II) light-up probes and photoreactive agents for G4 labelling, which is at the core of this review composed of an introduction dedicated to a brief description of G-quadruplex structures and two main sections. The first one will provide a general picture of ligands and metal complexes interacting with G4s. The second one will focus on an exhaustive and comprehensive overview of the interactions and (photo)reactions of Ru(II) complexes with G4s.

The telomeric 5' end nucleotide is regulated in the budding yeast Naumovozyma castellii

The junction between the double-stranded and single-stranded telomeric DNA (ds-ss junction) is fundamental in the maintenance of the telomeric chromatin, as it directs the assembly of the telomere binding proteins. In budding yeast, multiple Rap1 proteins bind the telomeric dsDNA, while ssDNA repeats are bound by the Cdc13 protein. Here, we aimed to determine, for the first time, the telomeric 5' end nucleotide in a budding yeast. To this end, we developed a permutation-specific PCR-based method directed towards the regular 8-mer telomeric repeats in Naumovozyma castellii. We find that, in logarithmically growing cells, the 320 ± 30 bp long telomeres mainly terminate in either of two specific 5' end permutations of the repeat, both corresponding to a terminal adenine nucleotide. Strikingly, two permutations are completely absent at the 5' end, indicating that not all ds-ss junction structures would allow the establishment of the protective telomere chromatin cap structure. Using in vitro DNA end protection assays, we determined that binding of Rap1 and Cdc13 around the most abundant ds-ss junction ensures the protection of both 5' ends and 3' overhangs from exonucleolytic degradation. Our results provide mechanistic insights into telomere protection, and reveal that Rap1 and Cdc13 have complementary roles.

TRF2 promotes dynamic and stepwise looping of POT1 bound telomeric overhang

Human telomeres are protected by shelterin proteins, but how telomeres maintain a dynamic structure remains elusive. Here, we report an unexpected activity of POT1 in imparting conformational dynamics of the telomere overhang, even at a monomer level. Strikingly, such POT1-induced overhang dynamics is greatly enhanced when TRF2 engages with the telomere duplex. Interestingly, TRF2, but not TRF2ΔB, recruits POT1-bound overhangs to the telomere ds/ss junction and induces a discrete stepwise movement up and down the axis of telomere duplex. The same steps are observed regardless of the length of the POT1-bound overhang, suggesting a tightly regulated conformational dynamic coordinated by TRF2 and POT1. TPP1 and TIN2 which physically connect POT1 and TRF2 act to generate a smooth movement along the axis of the telomere duplex. Our results suggest a plausible mechanism wherein telomeres maintain a dynamic structure orchestrated by shelterin.

Reciprocal impacts of telomerase activity and ADRN/MES differentiation state in neuroblastoma tumor biology

Telomere maintenance and tumor cell differentiation have been separately implicated in neuroblastoma malignancy. Their mechanistic connection is unclear. We analyzed neuroblastoma cell lines and morphologic subclones representing the adrenergic (ADRN) and mesenchymal (MES) differentiation states and uncovered sharp differences in their telomere protein and telomerase activity levels. Pharmacologic conversion of ADRN into MES cells elicited consistent and robust changes in the expression of telomere-related proteins. Conversely, stringent down-regulation of telomerase activity triggers the differentiation of ADRN into MES cells, which was reversible upon telomerase up-regulation. Interestingly, the MES differentiation state is associated with elevated levels of innate immunity factors, including key components of the DNA-sensing pathway. Accordingly, MES but not ADRN cells can mount a robust response to viral infections in vitro. A gene expression signature based on telomere and cell lineage-related factors can cluster neuroblastoma tumor samples into predominantly ADRN or MES-like groups, with distinct clinical outcomes. Our findings establish a strong mechanistic connection between telomere and differentiation and suggest that manipulating telomeres may suppress malignancy not only by limiting the tumor growth potential but also by inducing tumor cell differentiation and altering its immunogenicity.

Multiple hPOT1-TPP1 cooperatively unfold contiguous telomeric G-quadruplexes proceeding from 3' toward 5', a feature due to a 3'-end binding preference and to structuring of telomeric DNA

Telomeres are DNA repeated sequences that associate with shelterin proteins and protect the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. Human telomeres are composed of 5'TTAGGG repeats and ends with a 3' single-stranded tail, called G-overhang, that can be specifically bound by the shelterin protein hPOT1 (human Protection of Telomeres 1). In vitro studies have shown that the telomeric G-strand can fold into stable contiguous G-quadruplexes (G4). In the present study we investigated how hPOT1, in complex with its shelterin partner TPP1, binds to telomeric sequences structured into contiguous G4 in potassium solutions. We observed that binding of multiple hPOT1-TPP1 preferentially proceeds from 3' toward 5'. We explain this directionality in terms of two factors: (i) the preference of hPOT1-TPP1 for the binding site situated at the 3' end of a telomeric sequence and (ii) the cooperative binding displayed by hPOT1-TPP1 in potassium. By comparing binding in K+ and in Li+, we demonstrate that this cooperative behaviour does not stem from protein-protein interactions, but from structuring of the telomeric DNA substrate into contiguous G4 in potassium. Our study suggests that POT1-TPP1, in physiological conditions, might preferentially cover the telomeric G-overhang starting from the 3'-end and proceeding toward 5'.

Two coexisting pseudo-mirror heteromolecular telomeric G-quadruplexes in opposite loop progressions differentially recognized by a low equivalent of Thioflavin T

The final 3′-terminal residue of the telomeric DNA G-overhang is inherently less precise. Here, we describe how alteration of the last 3′-terminal base affects the mutual recognition between two different G-rich oligomers of human telomeric DNA in the formation of heteromolecular G-quadruplexes (hetero-GQs). Associations between three- and single-repeat fragments of human telomeric DNA, target d(GGGTTAGGGTTAGGG) and probe d(TAGGGT), in Na⁺ solution yield two coexisting forms of (3 + 1) hybrid hetero-GQs: the kinetically favourable LLP-form (left loop progression) and the thermodynamically controlled RLP-form (right loop progression). However, only the adoption of a single LLP-form has been previously reported between the same probe d(TAGGGT) and a target variant d(GGGTTAGGGTTAGGGT) having one extra 3′-end thymine. Moreover, the flanking base alterations of short G-rich probe variants also significantly affect the loop progressions of hetero-GQs. Although seemingly two pseudo-mirror counter partners, the RLP-form exhibits a preference over the LLP-form to be recognized by a low equivalent of fluorescence dye thioflavin T (ThT). To a greater extent, ThT preferentially binds to RLP hetero-GQ than with the corresponding telomeric DNA duplex context or several other representative unimolecular GQs.

Stabilization of telomere by the antioxidant property of polyphenols: Anti-aging potential

Aging is a form of a gradual loss of physiological integrity that results in impaired cellular function and ultimately increased vulnerability to disease and death. This process is a significant risk factor for critical age-related disorders such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurological conditions. Several mechanisms contribute to aging, most notably progressive telomeres shortening, which can be counteracted by telomerase enzyme activity and increasing in this enzyme activity associated with partly delaying the onset of aging. Individual behaviors and environmental factors such as nutrition affect the life-span by impact the telomerase activity rate. Healthy eating habits, including antioxidant intakes, such as polyphenols, can have a positive effect on telomere length by this mechanism. In this review, after studying the underlying mechanisms of aging and understanding the relationships between telomeres, telomerase, and aging, it has been attempted to explain the effect of polyphenols on reversing the oxidative stress and aging process.

Same fold, different properties: polarizable molecular dynamics simulations of telomeric and TERRA G-quadruplexes

DNA and RNA sequences rich in guanine can fold into noncanonical structures called G-quadruplexes (GQs), which exhibit a common stem structure of Hoogsteen hydrogen-bonded guanine tetrads and diverse loop structures. GQ sequence motifs are overrepresented in promoters, origins of replication, telomeres, and untranslated regions in mRNA, suggesting roles in modulating gene expression and preserving genomic integrity. Given these roles and unique aspects of different structures, GQs are attractive targets for drug design, but greater insight into GQ folding pathways and the interactions stabilizing them is required. Here, we performed molecular dynamics simulations to study two bimolecular GQs, a telomeric DNA GQ and the analogous telomeric repeat-containing RNA (TERRA) GQ. We applied the Drude polarizable force field, which we show outperforms the additive CHARMM36 force field in both ion retention and maintenance of the GQ folds. The polarizable simulations reveal that the GQs bind bulk K+ ions differently, and that the TERRA GQ accumulates more K+ ions, suggesting different ion interactions stabilize these structures. Nucleobase dipole moments vary as a function of position and also contribute to ion binding. Finally, we show that the TERRA GQ is more sensitive than the telomeric DNA GQ to water-mediated modulation of ion-induced dipole-dipole interactions.

53BP1: a DSB escort

In this review, Mirman et al. summarize the current understanding of the role of 53BP1 in DSB repair at deprotected telomeres, in class switch recombination in the immune system, and in the context of PARPi-treated BRCA1-deficient cells. They argue that the primary function of 53BP1 is not to regulate the choice between c-NHEJ and HDR, but to ensure the fidelity of DSB repair, a function that is corrupted in diseases where DNA repair is rewired.

53BP1 is an enigmatic DNA damage response factor that gained prominence because it determines the efficacy of PARP1 inhibitory drugs (PARPi) in BRCA1-deficient cancers. Recent studies have elevated 53BP1 from its modest status of (yet another) DNA damage factor to master regulator of double-strand break (DSB) repair pathway choice. Our review of the literature suggests an alternative view. We propose that 53BP1 has evolved to avoid mutagenic repair outcomes and does so by controlling the processing of DNA ends and the dynamics of DSBs. The consequences of 53BP1 deficiency, such as diminished PARPi efficacy in BRCA1-deficient cells and altered repair of damaged telomeres, can be explained from this viewpoint. We further propose that some of the fidelity functions of 53BP1 coevolved with class switch recombination (CSR) in the immune system. We speculate that, rather than being deterministic in DSB repair pathway choice, 53BP1 functions as a DSB escort that guards against illegitimate and potentially tumorigenic recombination.

Hydroxyl groups in cosolutes regulate the G-quadruplex topology of telomeric DNA

Telomeric G-quadruplex topology has the ability to regulate telomerase activity, which counteracts the shortening of telomere with successive cell divisions, thereby causing genomic longevity. However, the detailed mechanism of G-quadruplexes topologies formed by telomeric sequences requires further investigation. In this study, we quantitatively investigated the effect of cosolutes, particularly the varying number of hydroxyl groups, on the structural transition between hybrid type and parallel G-quadruplexes formed by telomeric DNA sequences. Cosolutes with one or no hydroxyl groups in the vicinal position more efficiently induced the transition to parallel G-quadruplex from hybrid G-quadruplex than those with more hydroxyl groups. We also examined the effect of cosolute structures on the hydration of G-quadruplex formation; the results indicated that cosolutes with fewer hydroxyl groups lead to the release of greater amount of water during G-quadruplex formation. Molecular dynamics results showed that the parallel G-quadruplex was more dehydrated than the hybrid type G-quadruplex. Generally, a dehydrated structure is favored under crowding condition. Thus, depending on the surrounding cosolutes, the G-quadruplex topology can be controlled by the G-quadruplex hydration state.

Either Rap1 or Cdc13 can protect telomeric single-stranded 3' overhangs from degradation in vitro

Telomeres, the DNA-protein structures capping the ends of linear chromosomes, are important for regulating replicative senescence and maintaining genome stability. Telomeres consist of G-rich repetitive sequences that end in a G-rich single-stranded (ss) 3′ overhang, which is vital for telomere function. It is largely unknown how the 3′ overhang is protected against exonucleases. In budding yeast, double-stranded (ds) telomeric DNA is bound by Rap1, while ssDNA is bound by Cdc13. Here, we developed an in vitro DNA 3′end protection assay to gain mechanistic insight into how Naumovozyma castellii Cdc13 and Rap1 may protect against 3′ exonucleolytic degradation by Exonuclease T. Our results show that Cdc13 protects the 3′ overhang at least 5 nucleotides (nt) beyond its binding site, when bound directly adjacent to the ds-ss junction. Rap1 protects 1–2 nt of the 3′ overhang when bound to dsDNA adjacent to the ds-ss junction. Remarkably, when Rap1 is bound across the ds-ss junction, the protection of the 3′ overhang is extended to 6 nt. This shows that binding by either Cdc13 or Rap1 can protect telomeric overhangs from 3′ exonucleolytic degradation, and suggests a new important role for Rap1 in protecting short overhangs under circumstances when Cdc13 cannot bind the telomere.

The Dietary Inflammatory Index® and Alternative Healthy Eating Index 2010 in relation to leucocyte telomere length in postmenopausal women: a cross-sectional study

Telomeres are nucleoprotein complexes that form the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes where they protect DNA from genomic instability, prevent end-to-end fusion and limit cellular replicative capabilities. Increased telomere attrition rates, and relatively shorter telomere length, is associated with genomic instability and has been linked with several chronic diseases, malignancies and reduced longevity. Telomeric DNA is highly susceptible to oxidative damage and dietary habits may make an impact on telomere attrition rates through the mediation of oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. The aim of this study was to examine the association between leucocyte telomere length (LTL) with both the Dietary Inflammatory Index^® 2014 (DII^®) and the Alternative Healthy Eating Index 2010 (AHEI-2010). This is a cross-sectional analysis using baseline data from 263 postmenopausal women from the Alberta Physical Activity and Breast Cancer Prevention (ALPHA) Trial, in Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. No statistically significant association was detected between LTL z-score and the AHEI-2010 (P = 0·20) or DII^® (P = 0·91) in multivariable adjusted models. An exploratory analysis of AHEI-2010 and DII^® parameters and LTL revealed anthocyanidin intake was associated with LTL (P < 0·01); however, this association was non-significant after a Bonferroni correction was applied (P = 0·27). No effect modification by age, smoking history, or recreational physical activity was detected for either relationship. Increased dietary antioxidant and decreased oxidant intake were not associated with LTL in this analysis.

Telomeric small RNAs in the genus Caenorhabditis

Telomeric DNA is composed of simple tandem repeat sequences and has a G-rich strand that runs 5' to 3' toward the chromosome terminus. Small RNAs with homology to telomeres have been observed in several organisms and could originate from telomeres or from interstitial telomere sequences (ITSs), which are composites of degenerate and perfect telomere repeat sequences found on chromosome arms. We identified Caenorhabditis elegans small RNAs composed of the Caenorhabditis telomere sequence (TTAGGC)_n with up to three mismatches, which might interact with telomeres. We rigorously defined ITSs for genomes of C. elegans and for two closely related nematodes, Caenorhabditis briggsae and Caenorhabditis remanei Most telomeric small RNAs with mismatches originated from ITSs, which were depleted from mRNAs but were enriched in introns whose genes often displayed hallmarks of genomic silencing. C. elegans small RNAs composed of perfect telomere repeats were very rare but their levels increased by several orders of magnitude in C. briggsae and C. remanei Major small RNA species in C. elegans begin with a 5' guanine nucleotide, which was strongly depleted from perfect telomeric small RNAs of all three Caenorhabditis species. Perfect G-rich or C-rich telomeric small RNAs commonly began with 5' UAGGCU and 5' UUAGGC or 5' CUAAGC, respectively. In contrast, telomeric small RNAs with mismatches had a mixture of all four 5' nucleotides. We suggest that perfect telomeric small RNAs have a mechanism of biogenesis that is distinct from known classes of small RNAs and that a dramatic change in their regulation occurred during recent Caenorhabditis evolution.

Telomere Trimming and DNA Damage as Signatures of High Risk Neuroblastoma

Telomeres play important roles in genome stability and cell proliferation. High risk neuroblastoma (HRNB), an aggressive childhood cancer, is especially reliant on telomere maintenance. Three recurrent genetic aberrations in HRNB (MYCN amplification, TERT re-arrangements, and ATRX mutations) are mutually exclusive and each capable of promoting telomere maintenance mechanisms (i.e., through telomerase or ALT). We analyzed a panel of 5 representative HRNB cell lines and 30 HRNB surgical samples using assays that assess average telomere lengths, length distribution patterns, single-stranded DNA on the G- and C-strand, as well as extra-chromosomal circular telomeres. Our analysis pointed to substantial and variable degrees of telomere DNA damage in HRNB, including pervasive oxidative lesions. Moreover, unlike other cancers, neuroblastoma consistently harbored high levels of C-strand ssDNA overhangs and t-circles, which are consistent with active "telomere trimming". This feature is observed in both telomerase- and ALT-positive tumors and irrespective of telomere length distribution. Moreover, evidence for telomere trimming was detected in normal neural tissues, raising the possibility that TMMs in HRNB evolved in the face of a canonical developmental program of telomere shortening. Telomere trimming by itself appears to distinguish neuroectodermal derived tumors from other human cancers, a distinguishing characteristic with both biologic and therapeutic implications.

Submolecular dissection reveals strong and specific binding of polyamide-pyridostatin conjugates to human telomere interface

To modulate biological functions, G-quadruplexes in genome are often non-specifically targeted by small molecules. Here, specificity is increased by targeting both G-quadruplex and its flanking duplex DNA in a naturally occurring dsDNA-ssDNA telomere interface using polyamide (PA) and pyridostatin (PDS) conjugates (PA-PDS). We innovated a single-molecule assay in which dissociation constant (Kd) of the conjugate can be separately evaluated from the binding of either PA or PDS. We found Kd of 0.8 nM for PA-PDS, which is much lower than PDS (Kd ∼ 450 nM) or PA (Kd ∼ 35 nM). Functional assays further indicated that the PA-PDS conjugate stopped the replication of a DNA polymerase more efficiently than PA or PDS. Our results not only established a new method to dissect multivalent binding into actions of individual monovalent components, they also demonstrated a strong and specific G-quadruplex targeting strategy by conjugating highly specific duplex-binding molecules with potent quadruplex ligands.

The Emerging Roles of TERRA in Telomere Maintenance and Genome Stability

The finding that transcription occurs at chromosome ends has opened new fields of study on the roles of telomeric transcripts in chromosome end maintenance and genome stability. Indeed, the ends of chromosomes are required to be protected from activation of DNA damage response and DNA repair pathways. Chromosome end protection is achieved by the activity of specific proteins that associate with chromosome ends, forming telomeres. Telomeres need to be constantly maintained as they are in a heterochromatic state and fold into specific structures (T-loops), which may hamper DNA replication. In addition, in the absence of maintenance mechanisms, chromosome ends shorten at every cell division due to limitations in the DNA replication machinery, which is unable to fully replicate the extremities of chromosomes. Altered telomere structure or critically short chromosome ends generate dysfunctional telomeres, ultimately leading to replicative senescence or chromosome instability. Telomere biology is thus implicated in multiple human diseases, including cancer. Emerging evidence indicates that a class of long noncoding RNAs transcribed at telomeres, known as TERRA for “TElomeric Repeat-containing RNA,” actively participates in the mechanisms regulating telomere maintenance and chromosome end protection. However, the molecular details of TERRA activities remain to be elucidated. In this review, we discuss recent findings on the emerging roles of TERRA in telomere maintenance and genome stability and their implications in human diseases.

Telomeres in neurological disorders

Ever since their discovery, the telomeres and the telomerase have been topics of intensive research, first as a mechanism of cellular aging and later as an indicator of health and diseases in humans. By protecting the chromosome ends, the telomeres play a vital role in preserving the information in our genome. Telomeres shorten with age and the rate of telomere erosion provides insight into the proliferation history of cells. The pace of telomere attrition is known to increase at the onset of several pathological conditions. Telomere shortening has been emerging as a potential contributor in the pathogenesis of several neurological disorders including autism spectrum disorders (ASD), schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and depression. The rate of telomere attrition in the brain is slower than that of other tissues owing to the low rate of cell proliferation in brain. Telomere maintenance is crucial for the functioning of stem cells in brain. Taking together the studies on telomere attrition in various neurological disorders, an association between telomere shortening and disease status has been demonstrated in schizophrenia, AD and depression, in spite of a few negative reports. But, studies in ASD and PD have failed to produce conclusive results. The cause-effect relationship between TL and neurological disorders is yet to be elucidated. The factors responsible for telomere erosion, which have also been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders, need to be explored in detail. Telomerase activation is now being considered as a potential therapeutic strategy for neurological disorders.

Investigating the Effect of Mono- and Dimeric 360A G-Quadruplex Ligands on Telomere Stability by Single Telomere Length Analysis (STELA)

Telomeres are nucleoprotein structures that cap and protect the natural ends of chromosomes. Telomeric DNA G-rich strands can form G-quadruplex (or G4) structures. Ligands that bind to and stabilize G4 structures can lead to telomere dysfunctions by displacing shelterin proteins and/or by interfering with the replication of telomeres. We previously reported that two pyridine dicarboxamide G4 ligands, 360A and its dimeric analogue (360A)_2A, were able to displace in vitro hRPA (a single-stranded DNA-binding protein of the replication machinery) from telomeric DNA by stabilizing the G4 structures. In this paper, we perform for the first time single telomere length analysis (STELA) to investigate the effect of G4 ligands on telomere length and stability. We used the unique ability of STELA to reveal the full spectrum of telomere lengths at a chromosome terminus in cancer cells treated with 360A and (360A)_2A. Upon treatment with these ligands, we readily detected an increase of ultrashort telomeres, whose lengths are significantly shorter than the mean telomere length, and that could not have been detected by other methods.

Comparison of telomere length measurement methods

The strengths and limitations of the major methods developed to measure telomere lengths (TLs) in cells and tissues are presented in this review. These include Q-PCR (Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction), TRF (Terminal Restriction Fragment) analysis, a variety of Q-FISH (Quantitative Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization) methods, STELA (Single TElomere Length Analysis) and TeSLA (Telomere Shortest Length Assay). For each method, we will cover information about validation studies, including reproducibility in independent laboratories, accuracy, reliability and sensitivity for measuring not only the average but also the shortest telomeres. There is substantial evidence that it is the shortest telomeres that trigger DNA damage responses leading to replicative senescence in mammals. However, the most commonly used TL measurement methods generally provide information on average or relative TL, but it is the shortest telomeres that leads to telomere dysfunction (identified by TIF, Telomere dysfunction Induced Foci) and limit cell proliferation in the absence of a telomere maintenance mechanism, such as telomerase. As the length of the shortest telomeres is a key biomarker determining cell fate and the onset of senescence, a new technique (TeSLA) that provides quantitative information about all the shortest telomeres will be highlighted.This article is part of the theme issue 'Understanding diversity in telomere dynamics'.

Shelterin-Mediated Telomere Protection

For more than a decade, it has been known that mammalian cells use shelterin to protect chromosome ends. Much progress has been made on the mechanism by which shelterin prevents telomeres from inadvertently activating DNA damage signaling and double-strand break (DSB) repair pathways. Shelterin averts activation of three DNA damage response enzymes [the ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) and ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) kinases and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1)], blocks three DSB repair pathways [classical nonhomologous end joining (c-NHEJ), alternative (alt)-NHEJ, and homology-directed repair (HDR)], and prevents hyper-resection at telomeres. For several of these functions, mechanistic insights have emerged. In addition, much has been learned about how shelterin maintains the telomeric 3' overhang, forms and protects the t-loop structure, and promotes replication through telomeres. These studies revealed that shelterin is compartmentalized, with individual subunits dedicated to distinct aspects of the end-protection problem. This review focuses on the current knowledge of shelterin-mediated telomere protection, highlights differences between human and mouse shelterin, and discusses some of the questions that remain.

Single telomere length analysis in Ustilago maydis, a high-resolution tool for examining fungal telomere length distribution and C-strand 5'-end processing

Telomeres play important roles in genome stability and cell proliferation. Telomere lengths are heterogeneous and because just a few abnormal telomeres are sufficient to trigger significant cellular response, it is informative to have accurate assays that reveal not only average telomere lengths, but also the distribution of the longest and shortest telomeres in a given sample. Herein we report for the first time, the development of single telomere length analysis (STELA) - a PCR-based assay that amplifies multiple, individual telomeres - for Ustilago maydis, a basidiomycete fungus. Compared to the standard telomere Southern technique, STELA revealed a broader distribution of telomere size as well as the existence of relatively short telomeres in wild type cells. When applied to blm∆, a mutant thought to be defective in telomere replication, STELA revealed preferential loss of long telomeres, whose maintenance may thus be especially dependent upon efficient replication. In comparison to blm∆, the trt1∆ (telomerase null) mutant exhibited greater erosion of short telomeres, consistent with a special role for telomerase in re-lengthening extra-short telomeres. We also used STELA to characterize the 5’ ends of telomere C-strand, and found that in U. maydis, they terminate preferentially at selected nucleotide positions within the telomere repeat. Deleting trt1 altered the 5’-end distributions, suggesting that telomerase may directly or indirectly modulate C-strand 5’ end formation. These findings illustrate the utility of STELA as well as the strengths of U. maydis as a model system for telomere research.

Protection of telomeres 1 proteins POT1a and POT1b can repress ATR signaling by RPA exclusion, but binding to CST limits ATR repression by POT1b

Comprised of telomeric TTAGGG repeats and shelterin, telomeres ensure that the natural ends of chromosomes remain impervious to the DNA damage response. Telomeres carry a long constitutive 3' overhang that can bind replication protein A (RPA) and activate the ATR Ser/Thr kinase (ATR), which induces cell cycle arrest. A single-stranded (ss) TTAGGG repeat-binding protein in mouse shelterin, POT1a, has been proposed to repress ATR signaling by preventing RPA binding. Repression of ATR at telomeres requires tethering of POT1a to the other shelterin subunits situated on the double-stranded (ds) telomeric DNA. The simplest model of ATR repression, the "tethered exclusion model," suggests that the only critical features of POT1a are its connection to shelterin and its binding to ss telomeric DNA. In agreement with the model, we show here that a shelterin-tethered variant of RPA70 (lacking the ATR recruitment domain) can repress ATR signaling at telomeres that lack POT1a. However, arguing against the tethered exclusion model, the nearly identical POT1b subunit of shelterin has been shown to be much less proficient than POT1a in repression of ATR. We now show that POT1b has the intrinsic ability to fully repress ATR but is prevented from doing so when bound to Ctc1, Stn1, Ten1 (CST), the complex needed for telomere end processing. These results establish that shelterin represses ATR with a tethered ssDNA-binding domain that excludes RPA from the 3' overhang and also reveal an unexpected effect of CST on the ability of POT1b to repress ATR.

A single nucleotide incorporation step limits human telomerase repeat addition activity

Human telomerase synthesizes telomeric DNA repeats (GGTTAG)_n onto chromosome ends using a short template from its integral telomerase RNA (hTR). However, telomerase is markedly slow for processive DNA synthesis among DNA polymerases. We report here that the unique template-embedded pause signal restricts the first nucleotide incorporation for each repeat synthesized, imparting a significantly greater K_M This slow nucleotide incorporation step drastically limits repeat addition processivity and rate under physiological conditions, which is alleviated with augmented concentrations of dGTP or dGDP, and not with dGMP nor other nucleotides. The activity stimulation by dGDP is due to nucleoside diphosphates functioning as substrates for telomerase. Converting the first nucleotide of the repeat synthesized from dG to dA through the telomerase template mutation, hTR-51U, correspondingly shifts telomerase repeat addition activity stimulation to dATP-dependent. In accordance, telomerase without the pause signal synthesizes DNA repeats with extremely high efficiency under low dGTP concentrations and lacks dGTP stimulation. Thus, the first nucleotide incorporation step of the telomerase catalytic cycle is a potential target for therapeutic enhancement of telomerase activity.

Can telomere shortening be the main indicator of non-viable fetus elimination?

Background

Telomeres are transcriptionally inactive genomic areas, which, if shortened, are associated with pathological processes, unsuccessful fertilization, aging, and death. Telomere dysfunction has also been linked to chromosomal rearrangements and genomic instability. The role of telomeres in postnatal life has been extensively studied and discussed both in physiological as well as in pathological processes. However, the role of telomere length in prenatal development is still poorly understood, and mainly concerns the preimplantation stage. The aim of this study was to estimate relative telomere length in spontaneously eliminated human embryos between 5th and 12th week of gestation.

Results

Relative telomere length was measured from total genomic DNA using a real-time polymerase chain reaction approach. In this study, we examined relative telomere length in 80 spontaneously eliminated embryos and in 25 embryos eliminated due to induced abortions. Relative telomere length in spontaneous abortions was significantly lower (P = 0.000001) compared to the induced abortions. Spontaneous abortions with aneuploid anomalies (monosomy X, trisomy 21, trisomy 16 and triploidy) were characterized by shorter telomeres, compared to spontaneous abortions, subgroup with euploid (46,XN) karyotype.

Conclusion

Spontaneously lost pregnancies are characterized by shortened telomeres, especially in embryos with aneuploidies. We hypothesize that the shortening of telomeres is involved in the processes leading to spontaneous abortions.