Mouse models for V103I and I251L gain of function variants of the human MC4R display decreased adiposity but are not protected against a hypercaloric diet

Mitochondrial regulation of obesity by POMC neurons

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons, nestled in the hypothalamus, play a pivotal role in the intricate coordination of energy homeostasis and metabolic pathways. These neurons' mitochondria, often hailed as the cell's powerhouses, are crucial for maintaining cellular energy equilibrium and metabolic functionality. Recent research has illuminated the complex interplay between mitochondrial dynamics and POMC neuronal activity, underscoring their critical involvement in the pathogenesis of a spectrum of metabolic disorders, notably obesity and diabetes. This comprehensive review delves into the molecular mechanisms that underlie how mitochondrial function within POMC neurons modulates metabolic regulation. We dissect the impact of mitochondrial dynamics, encompassing fusion, fission, mitophagy, and biogenesis, on the regulation of POMC neuronal activity. Furthermore, we scrutinize the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in POMC neurons in the etiology of obesity, identifying key therapeutic targets within these pathways. We offer an in-depth perspective on the indispensable role of POMC neuronal mitochondria in metabolic regulation and chart future research directions to bridge the existing knowledge gaps in this field.

Unexpected identification of obesity-associated mutations in LEP and MC4R genes in patients with anorexia nervosa

Mutations leading to a reduced or loss of function in genes of the leptin-melanocortin system confer a risk for monogenic forms of obesity. Yet, gain of function variants in the melanocortin-4-receptor (MC4R) gene predispose to a lower BMI. In individuals with reduced body weight, we thus expected mutations leading to an enhanced function in the respective genes, like leptin (LEP) and MC4R. Therefore, we have Sanger sequenced the coding regions of LEP and MC4R in 462 female patients with anorexia nervosa (AN), and 445 healthy-lean controls. In total, we have observed four and eight variants in LEP and MC4R, respectively. Previous studies showed different functional in vitro effects for the detected frameshift and non-synonymous variants: (1) LEP: reduced/loss of function (p.Val94Met), (2) MC4R: gain of function (p.Val103Ile, p.Ile251Leu), reduced or loss of function (p.Thr112Met, p.Ser127Leu, p.Leu211fsX) and without functional in vitro data (p.Val50Leut). In LEP, the variant p.Val94Met was detected in one patient with AN. For MC4R variants, one patient with AN carried the frameshift variant p.Leu211fsX. One patient with AN was heterozygous for two variants at the MC4R (p.Val103Ile and p.Ser127Leu). All other functionally relevant variants were detected in similar frequencies in patients with AN and lean individuals.

Chlorpromazine, an Inverse Agonist of D1R-Like, Differentially Targets Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel (CaV) Subtypes in mPFC Neurons

The dopamine receptor type 1 (D1R) and the dopamine receptor type 5 (D5R), which are often grouped as D1R-like due to their sequence and signaling similarities, exhibit high levels of constitutive activity. The molecular basis for this agonist-independent activation has been well characterized through biochemical and mutagenesis in vitro studies. In this regard, it was reported that many antipsychotic drugs act as inverse agonists of D1R-like constitutive activity. On the other hand, D1R is highly expressed in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), a brain area with important functions such as working memory. Here, we studied the impact of D1R-like constitutive activity and chlorpromazine (CPZ), an antipsychotic drug and D1R-like inverse agonist, on various neuronal Ca_V conductances, and we explored its effect on calcium-dependent neuronal functions in the mouse medial mPFC. Using ex vivo brain slices containing the mPFC and transfected HEK293T cells, we found that CPZ reduces Ca_V2.2 currents by occluding D1R-like constitutive activity, in agreement with a mechanism previously reported by our lab, whereas CPZ directly inhibits Ca_V1 currents in a D1R-like activity independent manner. In contrast, CPZ and D1R constitutive activity did not affect Ca_V2.1, Ca_V2.3, or Ca_V3 currents. Finally, we found that CPZ reduces excitatory postsynaptic responses in mPFC neurons. Our results contribute to understanding CPZ molecular targets in neurons and describe a novel physiological consequence of CPZ non-canonical action as a D1R-like inverse agonist in the mouse brain.

The melanocortin action is biased toward protection from weight loss in mice

The melanocortin action is well perceived for its ability to regulate body weight bidirectionally with its gain of function reducing body weight and loss of function promoting obesity. However, this notion cannot explain the difficulty in identifying effective therapeutics toward treating general obesity via activation of the melanocortin action. Here, we provide evidence that altered melanocortin action is only able to cause one-directional obesity development. We demonstrate that chronic inhibition of arcuate neurons expressing proopiomelanocortin (POMC) or paraventricular hypothalamic neurons expressing melanocortin receptor 4 (MC4R) causes massive obesity. However, chronic activation of these neuronal populations failed to reduce body weight. Furthermore, gain of function of the melanocortin action through overexpression of MC4R, POMC or its derived peptides had little effect on obesity prevention or reversal. These results reveal a bias of the melanocortin action towards protection of weight loss and provide a neural basis behind the well-known, but mechanistically ill-defined, predisposition to obesity development.

Constitutive activity of the dopamine (D5 ) receptor, highly expressed in CA1 hippocampal neurons, selectively reduces CaV 3.2 and CaV 3.3 currents

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Ca_V 3.1-3 currents differentially contribute to neuronal firing patterns. Ca_V 3 are regulated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) activity, but information about Ca_V 3 as targets of the constitutive activity of GPCRs is scarce. We investigate the impact of D₅ recpetor constitutive activity, a GPCR with high levels of basal activity, on Ca_V 3 functionality. D₅ recpetor and Ca_V 3 are expressed in the hippocampus and have been independently linked to pathophysiological states associated with epilepsy.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Our study models were HEK293T cells heterologously expressing D₁ or D₅ receptor and Ca_V 3.1-3, and mouse brain slices containing the hippocampus. We used chlorpromazine (D₁ /D₅ inverse agonist) and a D₅ receptor mutant lacking constitutive activity as experimental tools. We measured Ca_V 3 currents and excitability parameters using the patch-clamp technique. We completed our study with computational modelling and imaging technique.

KEY RESULTS

We found a higher sensitivity to TTA-P2 (Ca_V 3 blocker) in CA1 pyramidal neurons obtained from chlorpromazine-treated animals compared with vehicle-treated animals. We found that Ca_V 3.2 and Ca_V 3.3-but not Ca_V 3.1-are targets of D₅ receptor constitutive activity in HEK293T cells. Finally, we found an increased firing rate in CA1 pyramidal neurons from chlorpromazine-treated animals in comparison with vehicle-treated animals. Similar changes in firing rate were observed on a neuronal model with controlled Ca_V 3 currents levels.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Native hippocampal Ca_V 3 and recombinant Ca_V 3.2-3 are sensitive to D₅ receptor constitutive activity. Manipulation of D₅ receptor constitutive activity could be a valuable strategy to control neuronal excitability, especially in exacerbated conditions such as epilepsy.

Targeting appetite and satiety in diabetes and obesity, via G protein-coupled receptors

Type 2 diabetes and obesity have reached pandemic proportions throughout the world, so much so that the World Health Organisation coined the term "Globesity" to help encapsulate the magnitude of the problem. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are highly tractable drug targets due to their wide involvement in all aspects of physiology and pathophysiology, indeed, GPCRs are the targets of approximately 30% of the currently approved drugs. GPCRs are also broadly involved in key physiologies that underlie type 2 diabetes and obesity including feeding reward, appetite and satiety, regulation of blood glucose levels, energy homeostasis and adipose function. Despite this, only two GPCRs are the target of approved pharmaceuticals for treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. In this review we discuss the role of these, and select other candidate GPCRs, involved in various facets of type 2 diabetic or obese pathophysiology, how they might be targeted and the potential reasons why pharmaceuticals against these targets have not progressed to clinical use. Finally, we provide a perspective on the current development pipeline of anti-obesity drugs that target GPCRs.

Guidelines on Models of Diabetic Heart Disease

Diabetes is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, including diabetic cardiomyopathy, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. As cardiovascular disease represents the number one cause of death in people with diabetes, there has been a major emphasis on understanding the mechanisms by which diabetes promotes cardiovascular disease, and how antidiabetic therapies impact diabetic heart disease. With a wide array of models to study diabetes (both type 1 and type 2), the field has made major progress in answering these questions. However, each model has its own inherent limitations. Therefore, the purpose of this guidelines document is to provide the field with information on which aspects of cardiovascular disease in the human diabetic population are most accurately reproduced by the available models. This review aims to emphasize the advantages and disadvantages of each model, and to highlight the practical challenges and technical considerations involved. We will review the preclinical animal models of diabetes (based on their method of induction), appraise models of diabetes-related atherosclerosis and heart failure, and discuss in vitro models of diabetic heart disease. These guidelines will allow researchers to select the appropriate model of diabetic heart disease, depending on the specific research question being addressed.

Mutations in melanocortin-4 receptor: From fish to men

Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), expressed abundantly in the hypothalamus, is a critical regulator of energy homeostasis, including both food intake and energy expenditure. Shortly after the publication in 1997 of the Mc4r knockout phenotypes in mice, including increased food intake and severe obesity, the first mutations in MC4R were reported in humans in 1998. Studies in the subsequent two decades have established MC4R mutation as the most common monogenic form of obesity, especially in early-onset severe obesity. Studies in animals, from fish to mammals, have established the conserved physiological roles of MC4R in all vertebrates in regulating energy balance. Drug targeting MC4R has been recently approved for treating morbid genetic obesity. How the MC4R can be exploited for animal production is highly worthy of active investigation.

Nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics-A personalized approach to nutrition

The prevalence of non-communicable diseases has been on an upward trajectory for some time and this puts an enormous burden on the healthcare expenditure. Lifestyle modifications including dietary interventions hold an immense promise to manage and prevent these diseases. Recent advances in genomic research provide evidence that focussing these efforts on individual variations in abilities to metabolize nutrients (nutrigenetics) and exploring the role of dietary compounds on gene expression (nutrigenomics and nutri-epigenomics) can lead to more meaningful personalized dietary strategies to promote optimal health. This chapter aims to provide examples on these gene-diet interactions at multiple levels to support the need of embedding targeted dietary interventions as a way forward to prevent, avoid and manage diseases.

An Association between Diet and MC4R Genetic Polymorphism, in Relation to Obesity and Metabolic Parameters-A Cross Sectional Population-Based Study

The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene harbours one of the strongest susceptibility loci for obesity and obesity-related metabolic consequences. We analysed whether dietary factors may attenuate the associations between MC4R genotypes and obesity and metabolic parameters. In 819 participants genotyped for common MC4R polymorphisms (rs17782313, rs12970134, rs633265, and rs135034), the anthropometric measurements, body fat content and distribution (visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue, VAT and SAT, respectively), and blood glucose, insulin, total-, LDL-, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides concentrations, and daily macronutrient intake were assessed. ANOVA or Kruskal–Wallis tests were used, and multivariate linear regression models were developed. We observed that the CC genotype carriers (rs17782313) presented higher VAT, VAT/SAT ratio, fasting blood glucose and triglyceride concentrations when they were stratified to the upper quantiles of protein intake. An increase in energy derived from proteins was associated with higher BMI (Est. 5.74, R² = 0.12), body fat content (Est. 8.44, R² = 0.82), VAT (Est. 32.59, R² = 0.06), and VAT/SAT ratio (Est. 0.96, R² = 0.05). The AA genotype carriers (rs12970134) presented higher BMI, body fat, SAT and VAT, fasting blood glucose, triglycerides and total cholesterol concentrations. An increase in energy derived from proteins by AA carriers was associated with higher VAT (Est.19.95, R² = 0.06) and VAT/SAT ratio (Est. 0.64, R² = 0.05). Our findings suggest that associations of the common MC4R SNPs with obesity and its metabolic complications may be dependent on the daily dietary intake, which may open new areas for developing personalised diets for preventing and treating obesity and obesity-related comorbidities.