Integration of liver and blood micronucleus and Pig-a gene mutation endpoints into rat 28-day repeat-treatment studies: Proof-of-principle with diethylnitrosamine

Hepatocyte proliferation activity in untreated rats, measured by immunohistochemical detection of Ki-67: The effect of age on the repeated-dose liver micronucleus assay

The repeated-dose liver micronucleus (RDLMN) assay is a widely accepted method for detecting genotoxic substances. We investigated the effect of animal age on this assay. Proliferation activity in the liver tissue of untreated rats at age = 3.5, 6, 8, 10, or 12 weeks was measured via immunohistochemical expression of Ki-67 protein. The percentage of Ki-67-positive hepatocytes decreased markedly with age, reaching very low levels after 10 weeks, indicating decline with age of proliferative capacities in the liver. We calculated the area under the curve (AUC) of the approximate curve generated from the percentage of Ki-67-positive cells, to estimate the hepatocyte proliferation activity over the dosing period in the two regimens of the 4-week RDLMN assay: dosing initiated at age = 6 or 8 weeks. Hepatocyte proliferation activity of the former regimen was approximately double that of the latter. We also calculated the AUC for the juvenile-rat method, in which rats are treated for two days at age = 3.5 weeks. The AUC calculated for that method was approximately half of that for the 4-week repeated-dosing regimen initiated at 6 weeks of age. These findings suggest that the 4-week RDLMN assay with dosing initiated at age = 6 weeks could be approximately twice as sensitive as the other two methods.

Error-corrected next generation sequencing - Promises and challenges for genotoxicity and cancer risk assessment

Error-corrected Next Generation Sequencing (ecNGS) is rapidly emerging as a valuable, highly sensitive and accurate method for detecting and characterizing mutations in any cell type, tissue or organism from which DNA can be isolated. Recent mutagenicity and carcinogenicity studies have used ecNGS to quantify drug-/chemical-induced mutations and mutational spectra associated with cancer risk. ecNGS has potential applications in genotoxicity assessment as a new readout for traditional models, for mutagenesis studies in 3D organotypic cultures, and for detecting off-target effects of gene editing tools. Additionally, early data suggest that ecNGS can measure clonal expansion of mutations as a mechanism-agnostic early marker of carcinogenic potential and can evaluate mutational load directly in human biomonitoring studies. In this review, we discuss promising applications, challenges, limitations, and key data initiatives needed to enable regulatory testing and adoption of ecNGS - including for advancing safety assessment, augmenting weight-of-evidence for mutagenicity and carcinogenicity mechanisms, identifying early biomarkers of cancer risk, and managing human health risk from chemical exposures.

EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (EFSA CONTAM Panel), Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Hogstrand C, (Ron) Hoogenboom L, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Romualdo B, Cristina F, Stephen H, Marco I, Mosbach‐Schulz O, Riolo F, Christodoulidou A, Grasl‐Kraupp B. Risk assessment of N-nitrosamines in food

EFSA was asked for a scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of N-nitrosamines (N-NAs) in food. The risk assessment was confined to those 10 carcinogenic N-NAs occurring in food (TCNAs), i.e. NDMA, NMEA, NDEA, NDPA, NDBA, NMA, NSAR, NMOR, NPIP and NPYR. N-NAs are genotoxic and induce liver tumours in rodents. The in vivo data available to derive potency factors are limited, and therefore, equal potency of TCNAs was assumed. The lower confidence limit of the benchmark dose at 10% (BMDL10) was 10 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day, derived from the incidence of rat liver tumours (benign and malignant) induced by NDEA and used in a margin of exposure (MOE) approach. Analytical results on the occurrence of N-NAs were extracted from the EFSA occurrence database (n = 2,817) and the literature (n = 4,003). Occurrence data were available for five food categories across TCNAs. Dietary exposure was assessed for two scenarios, excluding (scenario 1) and including (scenario 2) cooked unprocessed meat and fish. TCNAs exposure ranged from 0 to 208.9 ng/kg bw per day across surveys, age groups and scenarios. 'Meat and meat products' is the main food category contributing to TCNA exposure. MOEs ranged from 3,337 to 48 at the P95 exposure excluding some infant surveys with P95 exposure equal to zero. Two major uncertainties were (i) the high number of left censored data and (ii) the lack of data on important food categories. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the MOE for TCNAs at the P95 exposure is highly likely (98-100% certain) to be less than 10,000 for all age groups, which raises a health concern.

Calotropis gigantea stem bark extracts inhibit liver cancer induced by diethylnitrosamine

Several fractions of Calotropis gigantea extracts have been proposed to have potential anticancer activity in many cancer models. The present study evaluated the anticancer activity of C. gigantea stem bark extracts in liver cancer HepG2 cells and diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced primary liver cancer in rats. The carcinogenesis model induced by DEN administration has been widely used to study pathophysiological features and responses in rats that are comparable to those seen in cancer patients. The dichloromethane (CGDCM), ethyl acetate, and water fractions obtained from partitioning crude ethanolic extract were quantitatively analyzed for several groups of secondary metabolites and calactin contents. A combination of C. gigantea stem bark extracts with doxorubicin (DOX) was assessed in this study to demonstrate the enhanced cytotoxic effect to cancer compared to the single administration. The combination of DOX and CGDCM, which had the most potential cytotoxic effect in HepG2 cells when compared to the other three fractions, significantly increased cytotoxicity through the apoptotic effect with increased caspase-3 expression. This combination treatment also reduced ATP levels, implying a correlation between ATP and apoptosis induction. In a rat model of DEN-induced liver cancer, treatment with DOX, C. gigantea at low (CGDCM-L) and high (CGDCM-H) doses, and DOX + CGDCM-H for 4 weeks decreased the progression of liver cancer by lowering the liver weight/body weight ratio and the occurrence of liver hyperplastic nodules, fibrosis, and proliferative cells. The therapeutic applications lowered TNF-α, IL-6, TGF-β, and α-SMA inflammatory cytokines in a similar way, implying that CGDCM had a curative effect against the inflammation-induced liver carcinogenesis produced by DEN exposure. Furthermore, CGDCM and DOX therapy decreased ATP and fatty acid synthesis in rat liver cancer, which was correlated with apoptosis inhibition. CGDCM reduced cleaved caspase-3 expression in liver cancer rats when used alone or in combination with DOX, implying that apoptosis-inducing hepatic carcinogenesis was suppressed. Our results also verified the low toxicity of CGDCM injection on the internal organs of rats. Thus, this research clearly demonstrated a promising, novel anticancer approach that could be applied in future clinical studies of CGDCM and combination therapy.

In vitro and integrated in vivo strategies to reduce animal use in genotoxicity testing

Scientific, financial, and ethical drivers have led to unprecedented interest in implementing human-relevant, mechanistic in vitro and in silico testing approaches. Further, as non-animal approaches are being developed and validated, researchers are interested in strategies that can immediately reduce the use of animals in toxicology testing. Here, we aim to outline a testing strategy for assessing genotoxicity beginning with standard in vitro methods, such as the bacterial reverse mutation test and the in vitro micronucleus test, followed by a second tier of in vitro assays including those using advanced 3D tissue models. Where regulatory agencies require in vivo testing, one demonstrated strategy is to combine genotoxicity studies traditionally conducted separately into a single test or to integrate genotoxicity studies into other toxicity studies. Standard setting organisations and regulatory agencies have encouraged such strategies, and examples of their use can be found in the scientific literature. Employing approaches outlined here will reduce animal use as well as study time and costs.

An Adaption of Human-Induced Hepatocytes to In Vitro Genetic Toxicity Tests

Metabolic activation is essential in standard in vitro genotoxicity test systems. At present, there is a lack of suitable cell models that can express the major characteristics of liver function for predicting substance toxicity in humans. Human-induced hepatocytes (hiHeps), which have been generated from fibroblasts by lentiviral expression of liver transcription factors, can express hepatic gene programs and can be expanded in vitro and display functional characteristics of mature hepatocytes, including cytochrome P450 enzyme activity and biliary drug clearance. Our purpose was to investigate whether hiHeps could be used as a more suitable model for genotoxicity evaluation of chemicals. Therefore, a direct mutagen, methylmethanesulfonate (MMS), and five promutagens [2-nitrofluorene (2-NF), benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), aflatoxin B1, cyclophosphamide and N-nitrosodiethylamine] were tested by the cytokinesis-block micronucleus test and the comet assay. Results from genotoxicity tests showed that the micronucleus frequencies were significantly increased by all of the six clastogens tested. Moreover, MMS, 2-NF and B[a]P induced significant increases in the % Tail DNA in the comet assay. In conclusion, our findings from the preliminary study demonstrated that hiHeps could detect the genotoxicity of indirect carcinogens, suggesting their potential to be applied as an effective tool for in vitro genotoxicity assessments.

Strategies in genotoxicology: Acceptance of innovative scientific methods in a regulatory context and from an industrial perspective

The tests used and the general principles behind test strategies are now often over 30 years old. It may be time by now, given that our knowledge of genetic toxicology has improved and that we also technically are better able to investigate DNA damage making use of modern molecular biological techniques, to start thinking on a new test strategy. In the present paper, it is discussed that the time is there to consider a new approach for genotoxicity assessment of substances. A fit for all test strategy was discussed making use of the most recent technological methods and techniques. It was also indicated that in silico tools should be more accepted by regulatory institutes/bodies as supporting information to better conclude which tests should be required for each separate substance to demonstrate its genotoxic potency. Next to that there should be a good rationale for performing in vivo studies. Finally, the need for germ cell genotoxicity testing, essential when classification and labeling of substances is mandatory, was discussed. It was suggested to change the GHS for genotoxicity classification and labelling from in vivo tests in germ cells into in vivo tests in somatic cells. Quantitative genotoxicology was also discussed. It appeared that we are currently at a transition, where the science developing to justify carrying out human health risk assessments based on genetic toxicology data sets supported by mechanistic data and exposure data. However, implementation will take time, and acceptance will be supported through the development of numerous case studies. Major remaining questions are: is genetic damage a relevant endpoint in itself, or should the risk assessment be carried out on the apical endpoint of cancer and which genotoxic endpoint should be used to derive the point of departure (PoD) for the human exposure limit?

Genetic toxicity assessment using liver cell models: past, present, and future

Genotoxic compounds may be detoxified to non-genotoxic metabolites while many pro-carcinogens require metabolic activation to exert their genotoxicity in vivo. Standard genotoxicity assays were developed and utilized for risk assessment for over 40 years. Most of these assays are conducted in metabolically incompetent rodent or human cell lines. Deficient in normal metabolism and relying on exogenous metabolic activation systems, the current in vitro genotoxicity assays often have yielded high false positive rates, which trigger unnecessary and costly in vivo studies. Metabolically active cells such as hepatocytes have been recognized as a promising cell model in predicting genotoxicity of carcinogens in vivo. In recent years, significant advances in tissue culture and biological technologies provided new opportunities for using hepatocytes in genetic toxicology. This review encompasses published studies (both in vitro and in vivo) using hepatocytes for genotoxicity assessment. Findings from both standard and newly developed genotoxicity assays are summarized. Various liver cell models used for genotoxicity assessment are described, including the potential application of advanced liver cell models such as 3D spheroids, organoids, and engineered hepatocytes. An integrated strategy, that includes the use of human-based cells with enhanced biological relevance and throughput, and applying the quantitative analysis of data, may provide an approach for future genotoxicity risk assessment.

3Rs friendly study designs facilitate rat liver and blood micronucleus assays and Pig-a gene mutation assessments: Proof-of-concept with 13 reference chemicals

Regulatory guidance documents stress the value of assessing the most appropriate endpoints in multiple tissues when evaluating the in vivo genotoxic potential of chemicals. However, conducting several independent studies to evaluate multiple endpoints and/or tissue compartments is resource intensive. Furthermore, when dependent on visual detection, conventional approaches for scoring genotoxicity endpoints can be slow, tedious, and less objective than the ideal. To address these issues with current practices we attempted to (1) devise resource sparing treatment and harvest schedules that are compatible with liver and blood micronucleus endpoints, as well as the Pig-a gene mutation assay, and (2) utilize flow cytometry-based methods to score each of these genotoxicity biomarkers. Proof-of-principle experiments were performed with 4-week-old male and female Crl:CD(SD) rats exposed to aristolochic acids I/II, benzo[a]pyrene, cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, diethylnitrosamine, 1,2-dimethylhydrazine, dimethylnitrosamine, 2,6-dinitrotoluene, hydroxyurea, melphalan, temozolomide, quinoline, or vinblastine. These 13 chemicals were each tested in two treatment regimens: one 3-day exposure cycle, and three 3-day exposure cycles. Each exposure, blood collection, and liver harvest was accomplished during a standard Monday-Friday workweek. Key findings are that even these well-studied, relatively potent genotoxicants were not active in both tissues and all assays (indeed only cisplatin was clearly positive in all three assays); and whereas the sensitivity of the Pig-a assay clearly benefitted from three versus one treatment cycle, micronucleus assays yielded qualitatively similar results across both study designs. Collectively, these results suggest it is possible to significantly reduce animal and other resource requirements while improving assessments of in vivo genotoxicity potential by simultaneously evaluating three endpoints and two important tissue compartments using fit-for-purpose study designs in conjunction with flow cytometric scoring approaches. Environ. Mol. Mutagen., 60:704-739, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In vivo genotoxicity testing strategies: Report from the 7th International workshop on genotoxicity testing (IWGT)

The working group reached complete or majority agreement on many issues. Results from TGR and in vivo comet assays for 91 chemicals showed they have similar ability to detect in vivo genotoxicity per se with bacterial mutagens and Ames-positive carcinogens. TGR and comet assay results were not significantly different when compared with IARC Group 1, 2 A, and unclassified carcinogens. There were significantly more comet assay positive responses for Group 2B chemicals, and for IARC classified and unclassified carcinogens combined, which may be expected since mutation is a sub-set of genotoxicity. A liver comet assay combined with the bone marrow/blood micronucleus (MNviv) test would detect in vivo genotoxins that do not exhibit tissue-specific or site-of-contact effects, and is appropriate for routine in vivo genotoxicity testing. Generally for orally administered substances, a comet assay at only one site-of-contact GI tract tissue (stomach or duodenum/jejunum) is required. In MNviv tests, evidence of target tissue exposure can be obtained in a number of different ways, as recommended by ICH S2(R1) and EFSA (Hardy et al., 2017). Except for special cases the i.p. route is inappropriate for in vivo testing; for risk evaluations more weight should be given to data from a physiologically relevant administration route. The liver MN test is sufficiently validated for the development of an OECD guideline. However, the impact of dosing animals >6 weeks of age needs to be evaluated. The GI tract MN test shows promise but needs more validation for an OECD guideline. The Pig-a assay detects systemically available mutagens and is a valuable follow-up to in vitro positive results. A new freeze-thaw protocol provides more flexibility. Mutant reticulocyte and erythrocyte frequencies should both be determined. Preliminary data are available for the Pig-a assay in male rat germ cells which require validation including germ cell DNA mutation origin.