Sleep in Alzheimer's Disease - Beyond Amyloid

Circadian rhythm disruption and retinal dysfunction: a bidirectional link in Alzheimer's disease?

Dysfunction in circadian rhythms is a common occurrence in patients with Alzheimer's disease. A predominant function of the retina is circadian synchronization, carrying information to the brain through the retinohypothalamic tract, which projects to the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Notably, Alzheimer's disease hallmarks, including amyloid-β, are present in the retinas of Alzheimer's disease patients, followed/associated by structural and functional disturbances. However, the mechanistic link between circadian dysfunction and the pathological changes affecting the retina in Alzheimer's disease is not fully understood, although some studies point to the possibility that retinal dysfunction could be considered an early pathological process that directly modulates the circadian rhythm.

Sleep-wake body temperature regulates tau secretion in mice and correlates with CSF and plasma tau in humans

The sleep-wake cycle regulates interstitial fluid and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tau levels in both mouse and human by mechanisms that remain unestablished. Here, we reveal a novel pathway by which wakefulness increases extracellular tau levels in mouse and humans. In mice, higher body temperature (BT) associated with wakefulness and sleep deprivation increased CSF tau. In vitro, wakefulness temperatures upregulated tau secretion via a temperature-dependent increase in activity and expression of unconventional protein secretion pathway-1 components, namely caspase-3-mediated C-terminal cleavage of tau (TauC3), and membrane expression of PIP2 and syndecan-3. In humans, the increase in both CSF and plasma tau levels observed post-wakefulness correlated with BT increase during wakefulness. Our findings suggest sleep-wake variation in BT may contribute to regulating extracellular tau levels, highlighting the importance of thermoregulation in pathways linking sleep disturbance to neurodegeneration, and the potential for thermal intervention to prevent or delay tau-mediated neurodegeneration.

Circadian and sleep phenotypes in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease characterized by intracellular accumulation of amyloid β oligomers

Disturbances in sleep-wake and circadian rhythms may reportedly precede the onset of cognitive symptoms in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the underlying mechanisms of these AD-induced sleep disturbances remain unelucidated. To specifically evaluate the involvement of amyloid beta (Aβ) oligomers in AD-induced sleep disturbances, we examined circadian and sleep phenotypes using an Aβ-GFP transgenic (Aβ-GFP Tg) mouse characterized by intracellular accumulation of Aβ oligomers. The circadian rhythm and free-running period of wheel running activity were identical between Aβ-GFP Tg and littermate wild-type mice. The durations of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep were elongated in Aβ-GFP Tg mice; however, the durations of non-REM sleep and wakefulness were unaffected. The Aβ-GFP Tg mice exhibited shifts in the electroencephalogram (EEG) power spectra toward higher frequencies in the inactive light phase. These findings suggest that the intracellular accumulation of Aβ oligomers might be associated with sleep quality; however, its impact on circadian systems is limited.

Stroke in the Time of Circadian Medicine

Time-of-day significantly influences the severity and incidence of stroke. Evidence has emerged not only for circadian governance over stroke risk factors, but also for important determinants of clinical outcome. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the interplay between chronobiology and cerebrovascular disease. We discuss circadian regulation of pathophysiological mechanisms underlying stroke onset or tolerance as well as in vascular dementia. This includes cell death mechanisms, metabolism, mitochondrial function, and inflammation/immunity. Furthermore, we present clinical evidence supporting the link between disrupted circadian rhythms and increased susceptibility to stroke and dementia. We propose that circadian regulation of biochemical and physiological pathways in the brain increase susceptibility to damage after stroke in sleep and attenuate treatment effectiveness during the active phase. This review underscores the importance of considering circadian biology for understanding the pathology and treatment choice for stroke and vascular dementia and speculates that considering a patient's chronotype may be an important factor in developing precision treatment following stroke.

The glymphatic system and multiple sclerosis: An evolving connection

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous system, resulting in demyelination and an array of neurological manifestations. Recently, there has been significant scientific interest in the glymphatic system, which operates as a waste-clearance system for the brain. This article reviews the existing literature, and explores potential links between the glymphatic system and MS, shedding light on its evolving significance in the context of MS pathogenesis. The authors consider the pathophysiological implications of glymphatic dysfunction in MS, the impact of disrupted sleep on glymphatic function, and the bidirectional relationship between MS and sleep disturbances. By offering an understanding of the intricate interplay between the glymphatic system and MS, this review provides valuable insights which may lead to improved diagnostic techniques and more effective therapeutic interventions.

Evaluating Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase as a Suitable Target for Sleep Promotion in a Transgenic TauP301S Mouse Model of Neurodegeneration

Sleep disruption is an expected component of aging and neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Sleep disruption has been demonstrated as a driver of AD pathology and cognitive decline. Therefore, treatments designed to maintain sleep may be effective in slowing or halting AD progression. However, commonly used sleep aid medications are associated with an increased risk of AD, highlighting the need for sleep aids with novel mechanisms of action. The endocannabinoid system holds promise as a potentially effective and novel sleep-enhancing target. By using pharmacology and genetic knockout strategies, we evaluated fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) as a therapeutic target to improve sleep and halt disease progression in a transgenic Tau P301S (PS19) model of Tauopathy and AD. We have recently shown that PS19 mice exhibit sleep disruption in the form of dark phase hyperarousal as an early symptom that precedes robust Tau pathology and cognitive decline. Acute FAAH inhibition with PF3845 resulted in immediate improvements in sleep behaviors in male and female PS19 mice, supporting FAAH as a potentially suitable sleep-promoting target. Moreover, sustained drug dosing for 5-10 days resulted in maintained improvements in sleep. To evaluate the effect of chronic FAAH inhibition as a possible therapeutic strategy, we generated FAAH-/- PS19 mice models. Counter to our expectations, FAAH knockout did not protect PS19 mice from progressive sleep loss, neuroinflammation, or cognitive decline. Our results provide support for FAAH as a novel target for sleep-promoting therapies but further indicate that the complete loss of FAAH activity may be detrimental.

Association between CNS-active drugs and risk of Alzheimer's and age-related neurodegenerative diseases

Objective

As neuropsychiatric conditions can increase the risk of age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), the impact of CNS-active drugs on the risk of developing Alzheimer's Disease (AD), non-AD dementia, Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Parkinson's Disease (PD) and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) was investigated.

Research design and methods

A retrospective cohort analysis of a medical claims dataset over a 10 year span was conducted in patients aged 60 years or older. Participants were propensity score matched for comorbidity severity and demographic parameters. Relative risk (RR) ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were determined for age-related NDDs. Cumulative hazard ratios and treatment duration were determined to assess the association between CNS-active drugs and NDDs at different ages and treatment duration intervals.

Results

In 309,128 patients who met inclusion criteria, exposure to CNS-active drugs was associated with a decreased risk of AD (0.86% vs 1.73%, RR: 0.50; 95% CI: 0.47-0.53; p <.0001) and all NDDs (3.13% vs 5.76%, RR: 0.54; 95% CI: 0.53-0.56; p <.0001). Analysis of impact of drug class on risk of AD indicated that antidepressant, sedative, anticonvulsant, and stimulant medications were associated with significantly reduced risk of AD whereas atypical antipsychotics were associated with increased AD risk. The greatest risk reduction for AD and NDDs occurred in patients aged 70 years or older with a protective effect only in patients with long-term therapy (>3 years). Furthermore, responders to these therapeutics were characterized by diagnosed obesity and higher prescriptions of anti-inflammatory drugs and menopausal hormonal therapy, compared to patients with a diagnosis of AD (non-responders). Addition of a second CNS-active drug was associated with greater reduction in AD risk compared to monotherapy, with the combination of a Z-drug and an SNRI associated with greatest AD risk reduction.

Conclusion

Collectively, these findings indicate that CNS-active drugs were associated with reduced risk of developing AD and other age-related NDDs. The exception was atypical antipsychotics, which increased risk. Potential use of combination therapy with atypical antipsychotics could mitigate the risk conferred by these drugs. Evidence from these analyses advance precision prevention strategies to reduce the risk of age-related NDDs in persons with neuropsychiatric disorders.

Spatiotemporal characteristics of neurophysiological changes in patients with four-repeat tauopathies

INTRODUCTION

Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and corticobasal degeneration (CBD), are the most common four-repeat tauopathies (4RT), and both frequently occur with varying degree of Alzheimer's disease (AD) copathology. Intriguingly, patients with 4RT and patients with AD are at opposite ends of the wakefulness spectrum-AD showing reduced wakefulness and excessive sleepiness whereas 4RT showing decreased homeostatic sleep. The neural mechanisms underlying these distinct phenotypes in the comorbid condition of 4RT and AD are unknown. The objective of the current study was to define the alpha oscillatory spectrum, which is prominent in the awake resting-state in the human brain, in patients with primary 4RT, and how it is modified in comorbid AD-pathology.

METHOD

In an autopsy-confirmed case series of 4R-tauopathy patients (n = 10), whose primary neuropathological diagnosis was either PSP (n = 7) or CBD (n = 3), using high spatiotemporal resolution magnetoencephalography (MEG), we quantified the spectral power density within alpha-band (8-12 Hz) and examined how this pattern was modified in increasing AD-copathology. For each patient, their regional alpha power was compared to an age-matched normative control cohort (n = 35).

RESULT

Patients with 4RT showed increased alpha power but in the presence of AD-copathology alpha power was reduced.

CONCLUSIONS

Alpha power increase in PSP-tauopathy and reduction in the presence of AD-tauopathy is consistent with the observation that neurons activating wakefulness-promoting systems are preserved in PSP but degenerated in AD. These results highlight the selectively vulnerable impacts in 4RT versus AD-tauopathy that may have translational significance on disease-modifying therapies for specific proteinopathies.

Clinical and cost-effectiveness of DREAMS START (Dementia RElAted Manual for Sleep; STrAtegies for RelaTives) for people living with dementia and their carers: a study protocol for a parallel multicentre randomised controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Many people living with dementia experience sleep disturbance and there are no known effective treatments. Non-pharmacological treatment options should be the first-line sleep management. For family carers, relatives' sleep disturbance leads to interruption of their sleep, low mood and breakdown of care. Our team developed and delivered DREAMS START (Dementia RElAted Manual for Sleep; STrAtegies for RelaTives), a multimodal non-pharmacological intervention, showing it to be feasible and acceptable. The aim of this randomised controlled trial is to establish whether DREAMS START is clinically cost-effective in reducing sleep disturbances in people living with dementia living at home compared with usual care.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

We will recruit 370 participant dyads (people living with dementia and family carers) from memory services, community mental health teams and the Join Dementia Research Website in England. Those meeting inclusion criteria will be randomised (1:1) either to DREAMS START or to usual treatment. DREAMS START is a six-session (1 hour/session), manualised intervention delivered every 1-2 weeks by supervised, non-clinically trained graduates. Outcomes will be collected at baseline, 4 months and 8 months with the primary outcome being the Sleep Disorders Inventory score at 8 months. Secondary outcomes for the person with dementia (all proxy) include quality of life, daytime sleepiness, neuropsychiatric symptoms and cost-effectiveness. Secondary outcomes for the family carer include quality of life, sleep disturbance, mood, burden and service use and caring/work activity. Analyses will be intention-to-treat and we will conduct a process evaluation.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

London-Camden & Kings Cross Ethics Committee (20/LO/0894) approved the study. We will disseminate our findings in high-impact peer-reviewed journals and at national and international conferences. This research has the potential to improve sleep and quality of life for people living with dementia and their carers, in a feasible and scalable intervention.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ISRCTN13072268.

Orexin Receptor Antagonism: Normalizing Sleep Architecture in Old Age and Disease

Sleep is essential for human well-being, yet the quality and quantity of sleep reduce as age advances. Older persons (>65 years old) are more at risk of disorders accompanied and/or exacerbated by poor sleep. Furthermore, evidence supports a bidirectional relationship between disrupted sleep and Alzheimer's disease (AD) or related dementias. Orexin/hypocretin neuropeptides stabilize wakefulness, and several orexin receptor antagonists (ORAs) are approved for the treatment of insomnia in adults. Dysregulation of the orexin system occurs in aging and AD, positioning ORAs as advantageous for these populations. Indeed, several clinical studies indicate that ORAs are efficacious hypnotics in older persons and dementia patients and, as in adults, are generally well tolerated. ORAs are likely to be more effective when administered early in sleep/wake dysregulation to reestablish good sleep/wake-related behaviors and reduce the accumulation of dementia-associated proteinopathic substrates. Improving sleep in aging and dementia represents a tremendous opportunity to benefit patients, caregivers, and health systems.

Altered sleep behavior strengthens face validity in the ArcAβ mouse model for Alzheimer's disease

Demographic changes will expand the number of senior citizens suffering from Alzheimer's disease (AD). Key aspects of AD pathology are sleep impairments, associated with onset and progression of AD. AD mouse models may provide insights into mechanisms of AD-related sleep impairments. Such models may also help to establish new biomarkers predicting AD onset and monitoring AD progression. The present study aimed to establish sleep-related face validity of a widely used mouse model of AD (ArcAβ model) by comprehensively characterizing its baseline sleep/wake behavior. Chronic EEG recordings were performed continuously on four consecutive days in freely behaving mice. Spectral and temporal sleep/wake parameters were assessed and analyzed. EEG recordings showed decreased non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS) and increased wakefulness in transgenic mice (TG). Vigilance state transitions were different in TG mice when compared to wildtype littermates (WT). During NREMS, TG mice had lower power between 1 and 5 Hz and increased power between 5 and 30 Hz. Sleep spindle amplitudes in TG mice were lower. Our study strongly provides sleep-linked face validity for the ArcAβ model. These findings extend the potential of the mouse model to investigate mechanisms of AD-related sleep impairments and the impact of sleep impairments on the development of AD.

Sex and Sleep Disruption as Contributing Factors in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects more women than men, with women throughout the menopausal transition potentially being the most under researched and at-risk group. Sleep disruptions, which are an established risk factor for AD, increase in prevalence with normal aging and are exacerbated in women during menopause. Sex differences showing more disrupted sleep patterns and increased AD pathology in women and female animal models have been established in literature, with much emphasis placed on loss of circulating gonadal hormones with age. Interestingly, increases in gonadotropins such as follicle stimulating hormone are emerging to be a major contributor to AD pathogenesis and may also play a role in sleep disruption, perhaps in combination with other lesser studied hormones. Several sleep influencing regions of the brain appear to be affected early in AD progression and some may exhibit sexual dimorphisms that may contribute to increased sleep disruptions in women with age. Additionally, some of the most common sleep disorders, as well as multiple health conditions that impair sleep quality, are more prevalent and more severe in women. These conditions are often comorbid with AD and have bi-directional relationships that contribute synergistically to cognitive decline and neuropathology. The association during aging of increased sleep disruption and sleep disorders, dramatic hormonal changes during and after menopause, and increased AD pathology may be interacting and contributing factors that lead to the increased number of women living with AD.

Longitudinal Sleep Patterns and Cognitive Impairment in Older Adults

Importance

Sleep disturbances and clinical sleep disorders are associated with all-cause dementia and neurodegenerative conditions, but it remains unclear how longitudinal changes in sleep impact the incidence of cognitive impairment.

Objective

To evaluate the association of longitudinal sleep patterns with age-related changes in cognitive function in healthy older adults.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study is a retrospective longitudinal analyses of the Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS), which evaluated self-reported sleep duration (1993-2012) and cognitive performance (1997-2020) in older adults. Participants within the SLS were enrolled as part of a community-based cohort from the Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound and Health Maintenance Organization of Washington between 1956 and 2020. Data analysis was performed from September 2020 to May 2023.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The main outcome for this study was cognitive impairment, as defined by subthreshold performance on both the Mini-Mental State Examination and the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale. Sleep duration was defined by self-report of median nightly sleep duration over the last week and was assessed longitudinally over multiple time points. Median sleep duration, sleep phenotype (short sleep, median ≤7 hours; medium sleep, median = 7 hour; long sleep, median ≥7 hours), change in sleep duration (slope), and variability in sleep duration (SD of median sleep duration, or sleep variability) were evaluated.

Results

Of the participants enrolled in SLS, only 1104 participants who were administered both the Health Behavior Questionnaire and the neuropsychologic battery were included for analysis in this study. A total of 826 individuals (mean [SD] age, 76.3 [11.8] years; 468 women [56.7%]; 217 apolipoprotein E ε4 allele carriers [26.3%]) had complete demographic information and were included in the study. Analysis using a Cox proportional hazard regression model (concordance, 0.76) showed that status as a short sleeper (hazard ratio, 3.67; 95% CI, 1.59-8.50) and higher sleep variability (hazard ratio, 3.06; 95% CI, 1.14-5.49) were significantly associated with the incidence of cognitive impairment.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this community-based longitudinal study of the association between sleep patterns and cognitive performance, the short sleep phenotype was significantly associated with impaired cognitive performance. Furthermore, high sleep variability in longitudinal sleep duration was significantly associated with the incidence of cognitive impairment, highlighting the possibility that instability in sleep duration over long periods of time may impact cognitive decline in older adults.

Subclinical epileptiform activity and sleep disturbances in Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

Subclinical epileptiform activity (SEA) and sleep disturbances are frequent in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Both have an important relation to cognition and potential therapeutic implications. We aimed to study a possible relationship between SEA and sleep disturbances in AD.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, we performed a 24-h ambulatory EEG and polysomnography in 48 AD patients without diagnosis of epilepsy and 34 control subjects.

RESULTS

SEA, mainly detected in frontotemporal brain regions during N2 with a median of three spikes/night [IQR1-17], was three times more prevalent in AD. AD patients had lower sleep efficacy, longer wake after sleep onset, more awakenings, more N1%, less REM sleep and a higher apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) and oxygen desaturation index (ODI). Sleep was not different between AD subgroup with SEA (AD-Epi+) and without SEA (AD-Epi-); however, compared to controls, REM% was decreased and AHI and ODI were increased in the AD-Epi+ subgroup.

DISCUSSION

Decreased REM sleep and more severe sleep-disordered breathing might be related to SEA in AD. These results could have diagnostic and therapeutic implications and warrant further study at the intersection between sleep and epileptiform activity in AD.

Louis EK. Proof-of-concept for characterization of neurodegenerative disorders utilizing two non-REM sleep biomarkers

Study objective

This proof-of-concept study aimed to determine whether the combined features of two non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep biomarkers acquired predominantly in-home could characterize different neurodegenerative disorders.

Methods

Sleep spindle duration and non-REM hypertonia (NRH) were evaluated in seven groups including a control group (CG = 61), and participants with isolated REM sleep behavior disorder (iRBD = 19), mild cognitive impairment (MCI = 41), Parkinson disease (PD = 16), Alzheimer disease dementia (ADem = 29), dementia with Lewy Bodies or Parkinson disease dementia (LBD = 19) and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP = 13). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Mann-Whitney U, intra-class (ICC) and Spearman ranked correlations, Bland-Altman plots and Kappa scores, Chi-square and Fisher exact probability test, and multiple-logistic regression were focused primarily on spindle duration and NRH and the frequencies assigned to the four normal/abnormal spindle duration/NRH combinations.

Results

ANOVA identified group differences in age, sleep efficiency, REM, NRH (p < 0.0001) and sleep time (p = 0.015), Spindle duration and NRH each demonstrated good night-to-night reliabilities (ICC = 0.95 and 0.75, Kappa = 0.93 and 0.66, respectively) and together exhibited an association in the PD and LBD groups only (p < 0.01). Abnormal spindle duration was greater in records of PSP (85%) and LBD (84%) patients compared to CG, MCI, PD and ADem (p < 0.025). Abnormal NRH was greater in PSP = 92%, LBD = 79%, and iRBD = 74% compared to MCI = 32%, ADem = 17%, and CG = 16% (p < 0.005).The combination biomarker normal spindle duration/normal NRH was observed most frequently in CG (56%) and MCI (41%). ADem most frequently demonstrated normal spindle duration/normal NRH (45%) and abnormal spindle duration/normal NRH (38%). Normal spindle duration/abnormal NRH was greatest in iRBD = 47%, while abnormal spindle duration/abnormal NRH was predominant in PSP = 85% and LBD = 74%.

Conclusion

The NREM sleep biomarkers spindle duration and NRH may be useful in distinguishing patients with different neurodegenerative disorders. Larger prospective cohort studies are needed to determine whether spindle duration and NRH can be combined for prodromal assessment and/or monitoring disease progression.

Circadian modulation by time-restricted feeding rescues brain pathology and improves memory in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease

Circadian disruptions impact nearly all people with Alzheimer's disease (AD), emphasizing both their potential role in pathology and the critical need to investigate the therapeutic potential of circadian-modulating interventions. Here, we show that time-restricted feeding (TRF) without caloric restriction improved key disease components including behavioral timing, disease pathology, hippocampal transcription, and memory in two transgenic (TG) mouse models of AD. We found that TRF had the remarkable capability of simultaneously reducing amyloid deposition, increasing Aβ42 clearance, improving sleep and memory, and normalizing daily transcription patterns of multiple genes, including those associated with AD and neuroinflammation. Thus, our study unveils for the first time the pleiotropic nature of timed feeding on AD, which has far-reaching effects beyond metabolism, ameliorating neurodegeneration and the misalignment of circadian rhythmicity. Since TRF can substantially modify disease trajectory, this intervention has immediate translational potential, addressing the urgent demand for accessible approaches to reduce or halt AD progression.

Instability in longitudinal sleep duration predicts cognitive impairment in aged participants of the Seattle Longitudinal Study

Importance

Sleep disturbances and clinical sleep disorders are associated with all-cause dementia and neurodegenerative conditions. It remains unclear how longitudinal changes in sleep impact the incidence of cognitive impairment.

Objective

To evaluate how longitudinal sleep patterns contribute to age-related changes in cognitive function in healthy adults.

Design Setting Participants

This study utilizes retrospective longitudinal analyses of a community-based study within Seattle, evaluating self-reported sleep (1993-2012) and cognitive performance (1997-2020) in aged adults.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The main outcome is cognitive impairment as defined by sub-threshold performance on 2 of 4 neuropsychological batteries: Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Mattis Dementia Rating Scale, Trail Making Test, and Wechsler Adult Intelligent Scale (Revised). Sleep duration was defined through self-report of 'average nightly sleep duration over the last week' and assessed longitudinally. Median sleep duration, change in sleep duration (slope), variability in sleep duration (standard deviation, Sleep Variability), and sleep phenotype ("Short Sleep" median ≤7hrs.; "Medium Sleep" median = 7hrs; "Long Sleep" median ≥7hrs.).

Results

A total of 822 individuals (mean age of 76.2 years [11.8]; 466 women [56.7%]; 216 APOE allele positive [26.3%]) were included in the study. Analysis using a Cox Proportional Hazard Regression model (concordance 0.70) showed that increased Sleep Variability (95% CI [1.27,3.86]) was significantly associated with the incidence of cognitive impairment. Further analysis using linear regression prediction analysis (R2=0.201, F (10, 168)=6.010, p=2.67E-07) showed that high Sleep Variability (β=0.3491; p=0.048) was a significant predictor of cognitive impairment over a 10-year period.

Conclusions and Relevance

High variability in longitudinal sleep duration was significantly associated with the incidence of cognitive impairment and predictive of decline in cognitive performance ten years later. These data highlight that instability in longitudinal sleep duration may contribute to age-related cognitive decline.

The multifactorial nature of healthy brain ageing: Brain changes, functional decline and protective factors

As the global population faces a progressive shift towards a higher median age, understanding the mechanisms underlying healthy brain ageing has become of paramount importance for the preservation of cognitive abilities. The first part of the present review aims to provide a comprehensive look at the anatomical changes the healthy brain endures with advanced age, while also summarizing up to date findings on modifiable risk factors to support a healthy ageing process. Subsequently, we describe the typical cognitive profile displayed by healthy older adults, conceptualizing the well-established age-related decline as an impairment of four main cognitive factors and relating them to their neural substrate previously described; different cognitive trajectories displayed by typical Alzheimer's Disease patients and successful agers with a high cognitive reserve are discussed. Finally, potential effective interventions and protective strategies to promote cognitive reserve and defer cognitive decline are reviewed and proposed.

Dementia Scale Classification with Sequential Model from Sleep Activity Data

Dementia, a disorder caused by brain diseases, has been found to influence the sleep patterns of patients. The finding indicates that monitoring sleep activity is helpful to detect the change in cognitive status. With this in mind, the aim of this study is to explore the possibility to develop a machine learning model for classifying the scores of dementia screening tests based on sleep activity data which could be recorded with less burden for participants. In this study, We collected sleep activity data from 124 elderly patients with varying cognitive states, including heart rate, respiratory rate and depth of sleep, using a single sensor. The score of Mini Mental State Estimation (MMSE) cognitive test is used to determine the level of cognitive states. First, we conducted a statistical analysis of the measured sleep activity data to find specific features observed in people with low-MMSE scores. Second, we utilized an efficient sequence model for capturing time-series changes in sleep activity for binary classification of the dementia scale to detect such low-MMSE people. Our findings revealed significant distinctions in sleep patterns between high and low cognitive status groups, and in the classification task, a maximum macro F1 score of 0.67 was achieved using LSTM models. Our results suggest the validity of using sleep activity data for the prediction of dementia classification.

GABA-Positive Astrogliosis in Sleep-Promoting Areas Associated with Sleep Disturbance in 5XFAD Mice

Sleep disturbances, a debilitating symptom of Alzheimer's disease (AD), are associated with neuropathological changes. However, the relationship between these disturbances and regional neuron and astrocyte pathologies remains unclear. This study examined whether sleep disturbances in AD result from pathological changes in sleep-promoting brain areas. Male 5XFAD mice underwent electroencephalography (EEG) recordings at 3, 6, and 10 months, followed by an immunohistochemical analysis of three brain regions associated with sleep promotion. The findings showed that 5XFAD mice demonstrated reduced duration and bout counts of nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep by 6 months and reduced duration and bout counts of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep by 10 months. Additionally, peak theta EEG power frequency during REM sleep decreased by 10 months. Sleep disturbances correlated with the total number of GFAP-positive astrocytes and the ratio of GFAP- and GABA-positive astrocytes across all three sleep-associated regions corresponding to their roles in sleep promotion. The presence of GABRD in sleep-promoting neurons indicated their susceptibility to inhibition by extrasynaptic GABA. This study reveals that neurotoxic reactive astrogliosis in NREM and REM sleep-promoting areas is linked to sleep disturbances in 5XFAD mice, which suggests a potential target for the treatment of sleep disorders in AD.

Progressive sleep disturbance in various transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia. The relationship between AD and sleep dysfunction has received increased attention over the past decade. The use of genetically engineered mouse models with enhanced production of amyloid beta (Aβ) or hyperphosphorylated tau has played a critical role in the understanding of the pathophysiology of AD. However, their revelations regarding the progression of sleep impairment in AD have been highly dependent on the mouse model used and the specific techniques employed to examine sleep. Here, we discuss the sleep disturbances and general pathology of 15 mouse models of AD. Sleep disturbances covered in this review include changes to NREM and REM sleep duration, bout lengths, bout counts and power spectra. Our aim is to describe in detail the severity and chronology of sleep disturbances within individual mouse models of AD, as well as reveal broader trends of sleep deterioration that are shared among most models. This review also explores a variety of potential mechanisms relating Aβ accumulation and tau neurofibrillary tangles to the progressive deterioration of sleep observed in AD. Lastly, this review offers perspective on how study design might impact our current understanding of sleep disturbances in AD and provides strategies for future research.

Alterations to parvalbumin-expressing interneuron function and associated network oscillations in the hippocampal - medial prefrontal cortex circuit during natural sleep in AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F mice

In the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the accumulation of the peptide amyloid-β (Aβ) damages synapses and disrupts neuronal activity, leading to the disruption of neuronal oscillations associated with cognition. This is thought to be largely due to impairments in CNS synaptic inhibition, particularly via parvalbumin (PV)-expressing interneurons that are essential for generating several key oscillations. Research in this field has largely been conducted in mouse models that over-express humanised, mutated forms of AD-associated genes that produce exaggerated pathology. This has prompted the development and use of knock-in mouse lines that express these genes at an endogenous level, such as the App^{NL-G-F/NL-G-F} mouse model used in the present study. These mice appear to model the early stages of Aβ-induced network impairments, yet an in-depth characterisation of these impairments in currently lacking. Therefore, using 16 month-old App^{NL-G-F/NL-G-F} mice, we analysed neuronal oscillations found in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) during awake behaviour, rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep to assess the extent of network dysfunction. No alterations to gamma oscillations were found to occur in the hippocampus or mPFC during either awake behaviour, REM or NREM sleep. However, during NREM sleep an increase in the power of mPFC spindles and decrease in the power of hippocampal sharp-wave ripples was identified. The latter was accompanied by an increase in the synchronisation of PV-expressing interneuron activity, as measured using two-photon Ca²⁺ imaging, as well as a decrease in PV-expressing interneuron density. Furthermore, although changes were detected in local network function of mPFC and hippocampus, long-range communication between these regions appeared intact. Altogether, our results suggest that these NREM sleep-specific impairments represent the early stages of circuit breakdown in response to amyloidopathy.

Circadian dysfunction and Alzheimer's disease - An updated review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is considered to be the most typical form of dementia that provokes irreversible cognitive impairment. Along with cognitive impairment, circadian rhythm dysfunction is a fundamental factor in aggravating AD. A link among circadian rhythms, sleep, and AD has been well-documented. The etiopathogenesis of circadian system disruptions and AD serves some general characteristics that also open up the possibility of viewing them as a mutually reliant path. In this review, we have focused on different factors that are related to circadian rhythm dysfunction. The various pathogenic factors, such as amyloid-beta, neurofibrillary tangles, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and circadian rhythm dysfunction may all contribute to AD. In this review, we also tried to focus on melatonin which is produced from the pineal gland and can be used to treat circadian dysfunction in AD. Aside from amyloid beta, tau pathology may have a notable influence on sleep. Conclusively, the center of this review is primarily based on the principal mechanistic complexities associated with circadian rhythm disruption, sleep deprivation, and AD, and it also emphasizes the potential therapeutic strategies to treat and prevent the progression of AD.

Circadian rhythm sleep disorders and time-of-day-dependent memory deficiency in Presenilin1/2 conditional knockout mice with long noncoding RNA expression profiling changes

Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients exhibit sleep and circadian disturbances prior to the onset of cognitive decline, and these disruptions worsen with disease severity. However, the molecular mechanisms behind sleep and circadian disruptions in AD patients are poorly understood. In this study, we investigated sleep pattern and circadian rhythms in Presenilin-1/2 conditional knockout (DKO) mice. Assessment of EEG and EMG recordings showed that DKO mice displayed increased NREM sleep time but not REM sleep during the dark phase compared to WT mice at the age of two months; at the age of six months, the DKO mice showed increased wakefulness periods and decreased total time spent in both NREM and REM sleep. WT exhibited time-of-day dependent modulation of contextual and cued memory. Compared with WT mice, 4-month-old DKO mice exhibited the deficiency regardless trained and tested in the same light/night phase or not. Particularly interesting was that DKO showed circadian modulation deficiency when trained in the resting period but not in the active period. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are typically defined as transcripts longer than 200 nucleotides, and they have rhythmic expression in mammals. To date no study has investigated rhythmic lncRNA expression in Alzheimer's disease. We applied RNA-seq technology to profile hippocampus expression of lncRNAs in DKO mice during the light (/resting) and dark (/active) phases and performed gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses of the cis lncRNA targets. Expression alteration of lncRNAs associated with immune response and metallodipeptidase activity may contribute to the circadian disruptions of DKO mice. Especially we identified some LncRNAs which expression change oppositely between day and light in DKO mice compared to WT mice and are worthy to be studied further. Our results exhibited the circadian rhythm sleep disorders and a noteworthy time-of-day-dependent memory deficiency in AD model mice and provide a useful resource for studying the expression and function of lncRNAs during circadian disruptions in Alzheimer's disease.

An Exploratory Study of Sleep-Wake Differences of Autonomic Activity in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment: The Role of Melatonin as a Modulating Factor

Purpose

The objective of the present study was to assess sleep-wake differences of autonomic activity in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) compared to control subjects. As a post-hoc objective, we sought to evaluate the mediating effect of melatonin on this association.

Patients and Methods

A total of 22 MCI patients (13 under melatonin treatment) and 12 control subjects were included in this study. Sleep-wake periods were identified by actigraphy and 24hr-heart rate variability measures were obtained to study sleep-wake autonomic activity.

Results

MCI patients did not show any significant differences in sleep-wake autonomic activity when compared to control subjects. Post-hoc analyses revealed that MCI patients not taking melatonin displayed lower parasympathetic sleep-wake amplitude than controls not taking melatonin (RMSSD -7 ± 1 vs 4 ± 4, p = 0.004). In addition, we observed that melatonin treatment was associated with greater parasympathetic activity during sleep (VLF 15.5 ± 0.1 vs 15.1 ± 0.1, p = 0.010) and in sleep-wake differences in MCI patients (VLF 0.5 ± 0.1 vs 0.2 ± 0.0, p = 0.004).

Conclusion

These preliminary findings hint at a possible sleep-related parasympathetic vulnerability in patients at prodromal stages of dementia as well as a potential protective effect of exogenous melatonin in this population.

Prediction of Cognitive Decline by Behavioral Symptoms in Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Background: Neuropsychiatric disorders are described by their neurological, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms. However, behavioral symptoms may often be overlooked due to the current approach in neurology. Objectives: This study investigated the relationship between behavioral symptoms and cognitive functioning in neurological disorders. The second aim was to predict neurocognitive patterns by behavioral symptoms as independent variables. Methods: Behavioral symptoms were collected based on semi-structured neuropsychiatric interviews with 211 patients admitted to the neuropsychiatry department of Ayatollah Kashani hospital in Isfahan by both a neuropsychiatry fellow and an attending neuropsychiatrist. A neuropsychiatry fellow assessed all patients using the neuropsychiatry unit cognitive (NUCog) assessment tool. We used a generalized linear model (GLM) to indicate the effect of behavioral symptoms on the risk of decline in cognitive domains. Due to the use of all available samples, this study had no age limit, and the patients were 15 to 92 years old. Results: The regression coefficient of NUCog subscale scores for behavioral symptoms using GLM revealed that education level had a positive relationship with the scores of attention (P < 0.001), visuoconstruction (P < 0.001), memory (P < 0.001), executive function (P < 0.001), language (P < 0.001), and the total score of NUCog (P < 0.001). Patients with apathy had lower scores on the memory subscale (P = 0.002) and total NUCog (P = 0.021). Similarly, patients with delusion had lower scores on memory (P = 0.006) and executive function (P = 0.026). There was a negative relationship between agitation and attention (P = 0.049), visuoconstruction (P = 0.015), memory (P = 0.018), executive function (P = 0.005), and total score of NUCog (P = 0.007). Sleep disturbances were accompanied by lower memory scores (P = 0.056) and lower mean NUCog scores (P = 0.052). Visual hallucination was associated with declined performance in attention (P = 0.057). Conclusions: Behavioral assessment can help predict cognitive patterns in patients with neurobehavioral syndromes.

Circadian dysregulation and Alzheimer’s disease: A comprehensive review

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the foremost variant of dementia, has been associated with a menagerie of risk factors, many of which are considered to be modifiable. Among these modifiable risk factors is circadian rhythm, the chronobiological system that regulates sleep‐wake cycles, food consumption timing, hydration timing, and immune responses amongst many other necessary physiological processes. Circadian rhythm at the level of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), is tightly regulated in the human body by a host of biomolecular substances, principally the hormones melatonin, cortisol, and serotonin. In addition, photic information projected along afferent pathways to the SCN and peripheral oscillators regulates the synthesis of these hormones and mediates the manner in which they act on the SCN and its substructures. Dysregulation of this cycle, whether induced by environmental changes involving irregular exposure to light, or through endogenous pathology, will have a negative impact on immune system optimization and will heighten the deposition of Aβ and the hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein. Given these correlations, it appears that there is a physiologic association between circadian rhythm dysregulation and AD. This review will explore the physiology of circadian dysregulation in the AD brain, and will propose a basic model for its role in AD‐typical pathology, derived from the literature compiled and referenced throughout.

Longitudinal associations between sleep duration and cognitive impairment in Chinese elderly

BACKGROUND

Age-associated cognitive decline has become a major threat to both personal welfare and public health and can further develop into Dementia/Alzheimer's disease. Sleep is significantly correlated with cognitive function, but both cognitive impairment and sleep problems increase with normal aging. This study explored how sleep duration affects cognitive performance among older adults in China.

METHODS

Using data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) in 2014 and 2018, cognitive function was assessed via the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), which included five domains: orientation, registration, attention or calculation, recall, and language. Logistic regression was used to examine whether the change in sleep duration was a risk factor for cognitive impairment. We also used multinomial logistic regression to study the impact of sleep duration and the changes in sleep duration on cognitive changes during the follow-up period.

RESULTS

The empirical study showed a U-shaped relationship between sleep duration and increased risk of cognitive impairment. Short (< 6 hours) and long (> 8 hours) sleep durations were positively associated with cognitive impairment. Tests of interactions between sleep duration and sleep quality showed that short sleep durations with fair sleep quality had an increased risk of cognitive impairment. Further, the participants were divided into three groups: normal cognition (MMSE > 24), mild cognitive impairment (MCI, 18 ≤ MMSE score ≤ 24), and severe cognitive impairment (MMSE < 18). First, of the participants with normal cognition at baseline, those who sleeping > 7 h at follow-up and > 7 h at both baseline and 4-year follow-up assessments could increase the risk of cognitive impairment. Second, for individuals with MCI at baseline, those who transitioned to sleeping > 7 h at follow-up period and > 7 h at both baseline and 4-year follow-up assessments had a lower chance of reverting to normal cognition.

CONCLUSION

Excessive sleep may be a major risk for cognitive impairment among older adults. Furthermore, a moderate amount of sleep could be a possible strategy to prevent cognitive impairment.

Poor sleep accelerates hippocampal and posterior cingulate volume loss in cognitively normal healthy older adults

Poor sleep quality is a known risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. This longitudinal imaging study aimed to determine the acceleration in the rates of tissue loss in cognitively critical brain regions due to poor sleep in healthy elderly individuals. Cognitively-normal healthy individuals, aged ≥60 years, reported Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and underwent baseline and 2-year follow-up magnetic resonance imaging brain scans. The links between self-reported sleep quality, rates of tissue loss in cognitively-critical brain regions, and white matter hyperintensity load were assessed. A total of 48 subjects were classified into normal (n = 23; PSQI score <5) and poor sleepers (n = 25; PSQI score ≥5). The two groups were not significantly different in terms of age, gender, years of education, ethnicity, handedness, body mass index, and cognitive performance. Compared to normal sleepers, poor sleepers exhibited much faster rates of volume loss, over threefold in the right hippocampus and fivefold in the right posterior cingulate over 2 years. In contrast, there were no significant differences in the rates of volume loss in the cerebral and cerebellar grey and white matter between the two groups. Rates of volume loss in the right posterior cingulate were negatively associated with global PSQI scores. Poor sleep significantly accelerates volume loss in the right hippocampus and the right posterior cingulate cortex. These findings demonstrate that self-reported sleep quality explains inter-individual differences in the rates of volume loss in cognitively-critical brain regions in healthy older adults and provide a strong impetus to offer sleep interventions to cognitively normal older adults who are poor sleepers.

An Improved Model of Moderate Sleep Apnoea for Investigating Its Effect as a Comorbidity on Neurodegenerative Disease

Sleep apnoea is a highly prevalent disease that often goes undetected and is associated with poor clinical prognosis, especially as it exacerbates many different disease states. However, most animal models of sleep apnoea (e.g., intermittent hypoxia) have recently been dispelled as physiologically unrealistic and are often unduly severe. Owing to a lack of appropriate models, little is known about the causative link between sleep apnoea and its comorbidities. To overcome these problems, we have created a more realistic animal model of moderate sleep apnoea by reducing the excitability of the respiratory network. This has been achieved through controlled genetically mediated lesions of the preBötzinger complex (preBötC), the inspiratory oscillator. This novel model shows increases in sleep disordered breathing with alterations in breathing during wakefulness (decreased frequency and increased tidal volume) as observed clinically. The increase in dyspnoeic episodes leads to reduction in REM sleep, with all lost active sleep being spent in the awake state. The increase in hypoxic and hypercapnic insults induces both systemic and neural inflammation. Alterations in neurophysiology, an inhibition of hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), is reflected in deficits in both long- and short-term spatial memory. This improved model of moderate sleep apnoea may be the key to understanding why this disorder has such far-reaching and often fatal effects on end-organ function.

FTD-associated mutations in Tau result in a combination of dominant and recessive phenotypes

Although mutations in the microtubules-associated protein Tau have long been connected with several neurodegenerative diseases, the underlying molecular mechanisms causing these tauopathies are still not fully understood. Studies in various models suggested that dominant gain-of-function effects underlie the pathogenicity of these mutants; however, there is also evidence that the loss of normal physiological functions of Tau plays a role in tauopathies. Previous studies on Tau in Drosophila involved expressing the human Tau protein in the background of the endogenous Tau gene in addition to inducing high expression levels. To study Tau pathology in more physiological conditions, we recently created Drosophila knock-in models that express either wildtype human Tau (hTau^WT) or disease-associated mutant hTau (hTau^V337M and hTau^K369I) in place of the endogenous Drosophila Tau (dTau). Analyzing these flies as homozygotes, we could therefore detect recessive effects of the mutations while identifying dominant effects in heterozygotes. Using memory, locomotion and sleep assays, we found that homozygous mutant hTau flies showed deficits already when quite young whereas in heterozygous flies, disease phenotypes developed with aging. Homozygotes also revealed an increase in microtubule diameter, suggesting that changes in the cytoskeleton underlie the axonal degeneration we observed in these flies. In contrast, heterozygous mutant hTau flies showed abnormal axonal targeting and no detectable changes in microtubules. However, we previously showed that heterozygosity for hTau^V337M interfered with synaptic homeostasis in central pacemaker neurons and we now show that heterozygous hTau^K369I flies have decreased levels of proteins involved in the release of synaptic vesicles. Taken together, our results demonstrate that both mutations induce a combination of dominant and recessive disease-related phenotypes that provide behavioral and molecular insights into the etiology of Tauopathies.

Enhanced Association of Tau Pathology and Cognitive Impairment in Mild Cognitive Impairment Subjects with Behavior Symptoms

BACKGROUND

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) individuals with neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) are more likely to develop dementia.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to understand the relationship between neuroimaging markers such as tau pathology and cognitive symptoms both with and without the presence of NPS during the prodromal period of Alzheimer's disease.

METHODS

A total of 151 MCI subjects with tau positron emission tomographic (PET) scanning with 18F AV-1451, amyloid-β (Aβ) PET scanning with florbetapir or florbetaben, magnetic resonance imaging, and cognitive and behavioral evaluations were selected from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. A 4-group division approach was proposed using amyloid (A-/A+) and behavior (B-/B+) status: A-B-, A-B+, A+B-, and A+B+. Pearson's correlation test was conducted for each group to examine the association between tau deposition and cognitive performance.

RESULTS

No statistically significant association between tau deposition and cognitive impairment was found for subjects without behavior symptoms in either the A-B-or A+B-groups after correction for false discovery rate. In contrast, tau deposition was found to be significantly associated with cognitive impairment in entorhinal cortex and temporal pole for the A-B+ group and nearly the whole cerebrum for the A+B+ group.

CONCLUSION

Enhanced associations between tauopathy and cognitive impairment are present in MCI subjects with behavior symptoms, which is more prominent in the presence of elevated amyloid pathology. MCI individuals with NPS may thus be at greater risk for further cognitive decline with the increase of tau deposition in comparison to those without NPS.

Association Between Mild Cognitive Impairment and Seasonal Rest-Activity Patterns of Older Adults

Seasonal variation in rest-activity patterns has been observed in healthy adult populations. This study examined seasonal variation in total time spent overnight in the bedroom by cognitively intact older adults and older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). We hypothesize that seasonal variation in rest-activity patterns is observed in the cognitively intact group and that this variation is disturbed in those with MCI. Study participants were 128 older adults; mean age 85.2 years. Ninety-eight were cognitively intact, and 30 had been diagnosed with MCI. All were enrolled in an ongoing longitudinal study using in-home passive monitoring technology. Infrared presence sensors were placed throughout each participant's home to monitor movement and presence in each room of the home. Activity data was collected from the sensors over a period of up to 527 days. Overnight time in bedroom was found to vary seasonally for the cognitively intact group, with longer times spent overnight in the bedroom during the winter months. This seasonal variation was not observed for those with non-amnestic MCI. MCI is associated with an attenuation of seasonal variation in total time spent in the bedroom at night. Detection of changes in infradian sleep patterns may be an early marker of cognitive decline. Which key determinants are driving these disturbed rhythms, such as features intrinsic to changes in the brain or to environmental factors or external cues, remains an important question for ongoing and future studies.

Targeting whole body metabolism and mitochondrial bioenergetics in the drug development for Alzheimer's disease

Aging is by far the most prominent risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and both aging and AD are associated with apparent metabolic alterations. As developing effective therapeutic interventions to treat AD is clearly in urgent need, the impact of modulating whole-body and intracellular metabolism in preclinical models and in human patients, on disease pathogenesis, have been explored. There is also an increasing awareness of differential risk and potential targeting strategies related to biological sex, microbiome, and circadian regulation. As a major part of intracellular metabolism, mitochondrial bioenergetics, mitochondrial quality-control mechanisms, and mitochondria-linked inflammatory responses have been considered for AD therapeutic interventions. This review summarizes and highlights these efforts.

Severity of Daytime Sleepiness and Parkinsonian-Like Symptoms in Korean Adults Aged 50-64 Years

Background and Purpose

While excessive daytime sleepiness can predate Parkinson’s disease in late-life, its association with parkinsonian-like (P-L) symptoms in middle age are unknown. Since neurodegeneration can appear decades before a diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease, identifying clinical features associated with this early progression is important. The purpose of this study was to determine the association of daytime sleepiness with P-L symptoms in a population-based sample of middle-aged Korean adults.

Methods

During 2013 and 2014, daytime sleepiness and P-L symptoms were assessed in 2,063 males and females aged 50–64 years who were participating in the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study. The severity of daytime sleepiness was quantified by the score on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). Self-reported P-L symptoms included nine motor disorders commonly associated with Parkinson’s disease. Participants with parkinsonism and related conditions are excluded.

Results

The prevalence of excessive daytime sleepiness (ESS score >10) was 7.0%. The frequencies of P-L symptoms ranged from 0.5% (for “trouble buttoning buttons”) to 18.4% (for “handwriting smaller than it once was”). After adjustment for covariates and multiple testing, the relative odds of P-L symptoms comparing the 80th and 20th percentiles of ESS scores was 1.6 (p=0.001) for “voice is softer than it once was,” 2.1 (p<0.001) for “balance when walking is poor,” and 1.5 (p=0.002) for “loss of facial expression.” The prevalence of excessive daytime sleepiness increased from 6.3% to 19.8% when the number of symptoms increased from zero to three (p=0.004).

Conclusions

In Korean adults aged 50–64 years, daytime sleepiness is significantly associated with P-L symptoms. Whether coexisting daytime sleepiness and P-L symptoms predate extrapyramidal and other impairments in later life warrants further investigation.

Association between Sleep Duration and Mild Cognitive Impairment at Different Levels of Metabolic Disease in Community-Dwelling Older Chinese Adults

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between metabolic syndrome (MetS), sleep duration and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in community-dwelling older Chinese adults.

METHODS

The study comprised of 1367 community-dwelling Chinese participants (563 men; mean age: 71.0 years) recruited from Tianjin and Shanghai, China who were invited to participate in a comprehensive geriatric assessment. The International Diabetes Federation metabolic syndrome guidelines were used to define MetS. The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) scale were used for the initial classification of patients with MCI. We divided sleep duration into five groups (≤6 h, 6-8 h which was used as the reference, 8-9 h, 9-10 h, and >10 h). Nutritional status was assessed by Mini Nutrition Assessment Short Form.

RESULTS

The overall incidence of metabolic syndrome was 46.7%, the overall incidence of mild cognitive impairment was 17.4%. In logistic regression analysis model, after adjusting for multiple confounding factors such as nutritional status and physical activity level, there was a significant positive association between long sleep duration (> 10h) and mild cognitive impairment in general population and metabolic syndrome population (p<0.05), but the association was not significant in non-metabolic syndrome group. In addition, in the long sleep duration group, the components of metabolic syndrome, elevated blood glucose were significantly associated with mild cognitive impairment (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Long sleep duration was significantly associated with increased risk of MCI in older adults with MetS, but not in those without MetS. The prevention of MCI may be more effective in the population of MetS with long sleep duration.

Sleep, circadian rhythm and gut microbiota: alterations in Alzheimer's disease and their potential links in the pathogenesis

ABSTRATCIn recent years, emerging studies have observed gut microbiota (GM) alterations in Alzheimer's disease (AD), even in individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Further, impaired sleep and circadian patterns are common symptoms of AD, while sleep and circadian rhythm disruption (SCRD) is associated with greater β-amyloid (Aβ) burden and AD risk, sometimes years before the clinical onset of AD. Moreover, reports have demonstrated that GM and its metabolites exhibit diurnal rhythmicity and the role of SCRD in dampening the GM rhythmicity and eubiosis. This review will provide an evaluation of clinical and animal studies describing GM alterations in distinct conditions, including AD, sleep and circadian disruption. It aims to identify the overlapping and distinctive GM alterations in these conditions and their contributions to pathophysiology. Although most studies are observational and use different methodologies, data indicate partial commonalities in GM alterations and unanimity at functional level. Finally, we discuss the possible interactions between SCRD and GM in AD pathogenesis, as well as several methodological improvements that are necessary for future research.

Exploring the Bidirectional Associations Between Short or Long Sleep Duration and Lower Cognitive Function: A 7-Year Cohort Study in China

Background: Sleep duration is linked to cognitive function, but whether short or prolonged sleep duration results from impaired cognition or vice versa has been controversial in previous studies. We aimed to investigate the bidirectional association between sleep duration and cognitive function in older Chinese participants.

Methods: Data were obtained from a nationally representative study conducted in China. A total of 7984 participants aged 45 years or older were assessed at baseline between June 2011 and March 2012 (Wave 1), 2013 (Wave 2), 2015 (Wave 3), and 2018 (Wave 4). Nocturnal sleep duration was evaluated using interviews. Cognitive function was examined via assessments of global cognition, including episodic memory, visuospatial construction, calculation, orientation and attention capacity. Latent growth models and cross-lagged models were used to assess the bidirectional association between sleep duration and cognitive function.

Results: Among the 7,984 participants who were followed in the four waves of the study, the baseline mean (SD) age was 64.7 (8.4) years, 3862 (48.4%) were male, and 6453 (80.7%) lived in rural areas. Latent growth models showed that both sleep duration and global cognition worsened over time. Cross-lagged models indicated that short or long sleep duration in the previous wave was associated with lower global cognition in the subsequent wave (standardized β = −0.066; 95% CI: −0.073, −0.059; P < 0.001; Wave 1 to 2) and that lower global cognition in the previous wave was associated with short or long sleep duration in the subsequent wave (standardized β = −0.106; 95% CI: −0.116, −0.096; P < 0.001; Wave 1 to 2).

Conclusion: There was a bidirectional association between sleep duration and cognitive function, with lower cognitive function having a stronger association with long or short sleep duration than the reverse relationship. Global cognition was likely the major driver in these reciprocal associations.

Dopamine, sleep, and neuronal excitability modulate amyloid-β-mediated forgetting in Drosophila

Alzheimer disease (AD) is one of the main causes of age-related dementia and neurodegeneration. However, the onset of the disease and the mechanisms causing cognitive defects are not well understood. Aggregation of amyloidogenic peptides is a pathological hallmark of AD and is assumed to be a central component of the molecular disease pathways. Pan-neuronal expression of Aβ42Arctic peptides in Drosophila melanogaster results in learning and memory defects. Surprisingly, targeted expression to the mushroom bodies, a center for olfactory memories in the fly brain, does not interfere with learning but accelerates forgetting. We show here that reducing neuronal excitability either by feeding Levetiracetam or silencing of neurons in the involved circuitry ameliorates the phenotype. Furthermore, inhibition of the Rac-regulated forgetting pathway could rescue the Aβ42Arctic-mediated accelerated forgetting phenotype. Similar effects are achieved by increasing sleep, a critical regulator of neuronal homeostasis. Our results provide a functional framework connecting forgetting signaling and sleep, which are critical for regulating neuronal excitability and homeostasis and are therefore a promising mechanism to modulate forgetting caused by toxic Aβ peptides.

Supporting older people with dementia to sleep well while in hospital

Optimal sleep is essential for health, well-being and recovery from illness but can be challenging to achieve in the acute hospital setting. Older people with dementia may find it particularly challenging to sleep well in the unfamiliar and disruptive environment of a hospital ward. Suboptimal sleep may potentially accelerate the progression of dementia. Conversely, optimal sleep may slow disease progression. Nursing staff who care for older people with dementia in hospital therefore need to find ways of supporting them to sleep well. This article explores the causes and consequences of suboptimal sleep in hospitalised older people with dementia and discusses evidence-based interventions that nursing staff can use to support these patients to sleep well, including person-centred sleep care, changes to sleep hygiene, environmental adaptations and changes to medicine regimens.

The Neurophysiology of Sleep in Parkinson's Disease

Sleep disturbances are among the most common nonmotor complications of Parkinson's disease (PD), can present in prodromal stages, and progress with advancing disease. In addition to being a symptom of neurodegeneration, sleep disturbances may also contribute to disease progression. Currently, limited options exist to modulate sleep disturbances in PD. Studying the neurophysiological changes that affect sleep in PD at the cortical and subcortical level may yield new insights into mechanisms for reversal of sleep disruption. In this article, we review cortical and subcortical recording studies of sleep in PD with a particular focus on dissecting reported electrophysiological changes. These studies show that slow-wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep are both notably disrupted in PD. We further explore the impact of these electrophysiological changes and discuss the potential for targeting sleep via stimulation therapy to modify PD-related motor and nonmotor symptoms. © 2021 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Nutraceutical and Probiotic Approaches to Examine Molecular Interactions of the Amyloid Precursor Protein APP in Drosophila Models of Alzheimer's Disease

Studies using animal models have shed light into the molecular and cellular basis for the neuropathology observed in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In particular, the role of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) plays a crucial role in the formation of senile plaques and aging-dependent degeneration. Here, we focus our review on recent findings using the Drosophila AD model to expand our understanding of APP molecular function and interactions, including insights gained from the fly homolog APP-like (APPL). Finally, as there is still no cure for AD, we review some approaches that have shown promising results in ameliorating AD-associated phenotypes, with special attention on the use of nutraceuticals and their molecular effects, as well as interactions with the gut microbiome. Overall, the phenomena described here are of fundamental significance for understanding network development and degeneration. Given the highly conserved nature of fundamental signaling pathways, the insight gained from animal models such as Drosophila melanogaster will likely advance the understanding of the mammalian brain, and thus be relevant to human health.

Brain mechanisms underlying neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review of symptom-general and -specific lesion patterns

Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPSs) are common in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and are associated with accelerated cognitive impairment and earlier deaths. This review aims to explore the neural pathogenesis of NPSs in AD and its association with the progression of AD. We first provide a literature overview on the onset times of NPSs. Different NPSs occur in different disease stages of AD, but most symptoms appear in the preclinical AD or mild cognitive impairment stage and develop progressively. Next, we describe symptom-general and -specific patterns of brain lesions. Generally, the anterior cingulate cortex is a commonly damaged region across all symptoms, and the prefrontal cortex, especially the orbitofrontal cortex, is also a critical region associated with most NPSs. In contrast, the anterior cingulate-subcortical circuit is specifically related to apathy in AD, the frontal-limbic circuit is related to depression, and the amygdala circuit is related to anxiety. Finally, we elucidate the associations between the NPSs and AD by combining the onset time with the neural basis of NPSs.

Specific cortical and subcortical grey matter regions are associated with insomnia severity

Background

There is an increasing awareness that sleep disturbances are a risk factor for dementia. Prior case-control studies suggested that brain grey matter (GM) changes involving cortical (i.e, prefrontal areas) and subcortical structures (i.e, putamen, thalamus) could be associated with insomnia status. However, it remains unclear whether there is a gradient association between these regions and the severity of insomnia in older adults who could be at risk for dementia. Since depressive symptoms and sleep apnea can both feature insomnia-related factors, can impact brain health and are frequently present in older populations, it is important to include them when studying insomnia. Therefore, our goal was to investigate GM changes associated with insomnia severity in a cohort of healthy older adults, taking into account the potential effect of depression and sleep apnea as well. We hypothesized that insomnia severity is correlated with 1) cortical regions responsible for regulation of sleep and emotion, such as the orbitofrontal cortex and, 2) subcortical regions, such as the putamen.

Methods

120 healthy subjects (age 74.8±5.7 years old, 55.7% female) were recruited from the Hillblom Healthy Aging Network at the Memory and Aging Center, UCSF. All participants were determined to be cognitively healthy following a neurological evaluation, neuropsychological assessment and informant interview. Participants had a 3T brain MRI and completed the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and Berlin Sleep Questionnaire (BA) to assess sleep apnea. Cortical thickness (CTh) and subcortical volumes were obtained by the CAT12 toolbox within SPM12. We studied the correlation of CTh and subcortical volumes with ISI using multiple regressions adjusted by age, sex, handedness and MRI scan type. Additional models adjusting by GDS and BA were also performed.

Results

ISI and GDS were predominantly mild (4.9±4.2 and 2.5±2.9, respectively) and BA was mostly low risk (80%). Higher ISI correlated with lower CTh of the right orbitofrontal, right superior and caudal middle frontal areas, right temporo-parietal junction and left anterior cingulate cortex (p<0.001, uncorrected FWE). When adjusting by GDS, right ventral orbitofrontal and temporo-parietal junction remained significant, and left insula became significant (p<0.001, uncorrected FWE). Conversely, BA showed no effect. The results were no longer significant following FWE multiple comparisons. Regarding subcortical areas, higher putamen volumes were associated with higher ISI (p<0.01).

Conclusions

Our findings highlight a relationship between insomnia severity and brain health, even with relatively mild insomnia, and independent of depression and likelihood of sleep apnea. The results extend the previous literature showing the association of specific GM areas (i.e, orbitofrontal, insular and temporo-parietal junction) not just with the presence of insomnia, but across the spectrum of severity itself. Moreover, our results suggest subcortical structures (i.e., putamen) are involved as well. Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify how these insomnia-related brain changes in healthy subjects align with an increased risk of dementia.

Sleep profile predicts the cognitive decline of mild-moderate Alzheimer's disease patients

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association between sleep and cognitive decline of patients with mild-moderate Alzheimer's disease.

METHODS

Observational, prospective study, including consecutive patients diagnosed with mild-moderate Alzheimer's disease. Cerebrospinal fluid was collected for amyloid-beta, total-tau, and phospho-tau levels determination. Also, overnight polysomnography was performed, followed by neuropsychological evaluations at baseline and after 12 months of follow-up. Principal component analysis revealed two profiles of patients in terms of sleep: one with a propensity to deepen the sleep (deep sleepers) and the other with a propensity to spend most of the time in the lighter sleep stage (light sleepers).

RESULTS

The cohort included 125 patients with a median [IQR] of 75.0 [72.0;80.0] years. Deep and light sleepers did not present differences in relation to the cerebrospinal fluid pathological markers and to the cognitive function at the baseline. However, there was a significant difference of -1.51 (95% CI: -2.43 to -0.59) in the Mini-mental state examination after 12 months of follow-up. Accordingly, sleep depth and cognitive decline presented a dose-response relationship (p-for-trend = 0.02). Similar outcomes were observed in relation to the processing speed (Stroop words test, p-value = 0.016) and to the executive function (Verbal fluency test, p-value = 0.023).

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the increased cognitive decline presented by light sleepers, the sleep profile may have a predictive role in relation to the cognitive function of patients with mild-moderate Alzheimer's disease. The modifiable nature of sleep sets this behavior as a possible useful intervention to prevent a marked cognitive decline.

Connection between sleeping patterns and cognitive deterioration in women with Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) causes symptoms such as dementia, memory loss, disorientation, and even aggressiveness, and is more common in women than in men. AD may also manifest itself in changes in sleep patterns. However, the relationship between AD (in all stages) and bedtime behavior has not been thoroughly investigated.

METHODS

In a prospective, cross-sectional survey, we evaluated 74 women categorized in two different stages of cognitive decline associated with AD (mild and severe) along with 37 women with no cognitive decline who served as controls. We obtained demographic and medical information such as age, health status, and medication, as well as psychiatrically confirmed staging of AD. We also collected actigraphy data for several nights in a row with a medical grade wristband using a 3-axis accelerometer and solid-state on-board memory. These data served as parameters for a clustering machine learning (ML) algorithm.

RESULTS

The ML process was able to unsupervisedly identify 85% of the participants according to their pre-assigned degree of dementia. When the clustering was carried out in a binary fashion (i.e., only taking into account healthy members vs. severely affected AD patients), it was possible to correctly classify 91% of the cases.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed a strong connection between the severity of the intellectual decline and the features distilled from actigraphically derived sleep parameters.

Resilience in the suprachiasmatic nucleus: Implications for aging and Alzheimer's disease

Many believe that the circadian impairments associated with aging and Alzheimer's disease are, simply enough, a byproduct of tissue degeneration within the central pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). However, the findings that have accumulated to date examining the SCNs obtained postmortem from the brains of older individuals, or those diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease upon autopsy, suggest only limited atrophy. We review this literature as well as a complementary one concerning fetal-donor SCN transplant, which established that many circadian timekeeping functions can be maintained with rudimentary (structurally limited) representations of the SCN. Together, these corpora of data suggest that the SCN is a resilient brain region that cannot be directly (or solely) implicated in the behavioral manifestations of circadian disorganization often witnessed during aging as well as early and late progression of Alzheimer's disease. We complete our review by suggesting future directions of research that may bridge this conceptual divide and briefly discuss the implications of it for improving health outcomes in later adulthood.

Apolipoprotein E ɛ4 (APOE ɛ4) Allele is Associated with Long Sleep Duration Among Elderly with Cognitive Impairment

Background: Apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) ɛ4 allele increases the risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Furthermore, among patients with cognitive impairment, longer sleep duration is associated with worse cognitive performance. To date, literature examining the associations between APOE ɛ4 allele and objective sleep duration is limited. Objective: Our aim was to assess the association between APOE ɛ4 and objective sleep duration, among patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD. A sub-sample of 89 patients with AD (n = 49) and MCI (n = 40) were recruited from a large, population-based cohort of 3,140 elders (>60 years) residing on Crete, Greece. Methods: All participants underwent medical history/physical examination, extensive neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological evaluation, 3-day 24 h actigraphy and APOE ɛ4 allele genotyping. Comparisons of sleep duration variables between APOE ɛ4 allele carriers and non-carriers were assessed using ANCOVA, controlling for confounders. Results: The sample included 18 APOE ɛ4 carriers and 71 non-carriers, aged 78.6±6.6 and 78.2±6.5 years, respectively. Comparisons between the APOE ɛ4 carriers and non-carriers revealed no significant differences in terms of demographic and clinical variables. In terms of objective sleep duration across the two groups, APOE ɛ4 carriers compared to non-carriers had significantly longer nighttime Total Sleep Time (nTST) (7.7±1.4 versus 7.2±1.3  h, respectively, p = 0.011), as well as 24 h TST (8.5±1.6 versus 7.8±1.5  h, respectively, p = 0.012). Conclusion: Among patients with MCI and AD, APOE ɛ4 carriers have longer objective nighttime and 24 h sleep duration compared to non-carriers. These findings further support that objective long sleep duration is a genetically-driven pre-clinical marker associated with worse prognosis in elderly with cognitive impairment.