Upregulation of osteopontin in Schwann cells of the sciatic nerves of Lewis rats with experimental autoimmune neuritis

Lithium alleviates paralysis in experimental autoimmune neuritis in Lewis rats by modulating glycogen synthase kinase-3β activity

IMPORTANCE

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS)-like neuropathy mimics the leading cause of sporadic acute nontraumatic limb paralysis in individuals from developed countries. Experimental autoimmune neuritis (EAN) is an animal model of GBS and of syndromes such as acute canine polyradiculoneuritis, seen in dogs and cats.

OBJECTIVE

The involvement of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, a pro-inflammatory molecule, in rat EAN is not fully understood. This study evaluated the potential role of GSK-3β in EAN through its inhibition by lithium.

METHODS

Lewis rats were injected with SP26 antigen to induce EAN. Lithium was administered from 1 day before immunization to day 14 post-immunization (PI). Then the rats were euthanized and their neural tissues were prepared for histological and Western blotting analyses.

RESULTS

Lithium, an inhibitor of GSK-3, significantly ameliorated EAN paralysis in rats, when administered from day 1 to day 14 PI. This corresponded with reduced inflammation in the sciatic nerves of EAN rats, where phosphorylation of GSK-3β was also upregulated, indicating suppression of GSK-3.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

These findings suggest that lithium, an inhibitor of GSK-3β, plays a significant role in ameliorating rat EAN paralysis, by suppressing GSK-3β and its related signals in EAN-affected sciatic nerves.

C286, an orally available retinoic acid receptor β agonist drug, regulates multiple pathways to achieve spinal cord injury repair

Retinoic acid receptor β2 (RARβ2) is an emerging therapeutic target for spinal cord injuries (SCIs) with a unique multimodal regenerative effect. We have developed a first-in-class RARβ agonist drug, C286, that modulates neuron-glial pathways to induce functional recovery in a rodent model of sensory root avulsion. Here, using genome-wide and pathway enrichment analysis of avulsed rats' spinal cords, we show that C286 also influences the extracellular milieu (ECM). Protein expression studies showed that C286 upregulates tenascin-C, integrin-α9, and osteopontin in the injured cord. Similarly, C286 remodulates these ECM molecules, hampers inflammation and prevents tissue loss in a rodent model of spinal cord contusion C286. We further demonstrate C286's efficacy in human iPSC-derived neurons, with treatment resulting in a significant increase in neurite outgrowth. Additionally, we identify a putative efficacy biomarker, S100B, which plasma levels correlated with axonal regeneration in nerve-injured rats. We also found that other clinically available retinoids, that are not RARβ specific agonists, did not lead to functional recovery in avulsed rats, demonstrating the requirement for RARβ specific pathways in regeneration. In a Phase 1 trial, the single ascending dose (SAD) cohorts showed increases in expression of RARβ2 in white blood cells correlative to increased doses and at the highest dose administered, the pharmacokinetics were similar to the rat proof of concept (POC) studies. Collectively, our data suggests that C286 signalling in neurite/axonal outgrowth is conserved between species and across nerve injuries. This warrants further clinical testing of C286 to ascertain POC in a broad spectrum of neurodegenerative conditions.

Enhancing sciatic nerve regeneration with osteopontin-loaded acellular nerve allografts in rats: Effects on macrophage polarization

Osteopontin (OPN) is a multifunctional matrix glycoprotein with neuroprotective and immunomodulatory properties. This study explored the potential of OPN-loaded acellular nerve allografts (ANAs) to repair sciatic nerves in male Wistar rats. The research also delved into the impact of OPN on macrophage phenotypes. We reconstructed a 10 mm nerve gap with ANAs containing OPN at 2 nM and 4 nM. The sciatic functional index (SFI) and paw withdrawal reflex latency (WRL) showed the significant efficacy of ANA/OPN (2 nM) in enhancement of target organ reinnervation and subsequent sensorimotor recovery compared to other groups. Electrophysiological and histomorphometric analyses further supported the regenerative properties of ANA/OPN (2 nM). Additionally, ANA/OPN (2 nM) promoted macrophage polarization towards an M2 phenotype and reduced proinflammatory cytokines at the injury site. In conclusion, the study suggested that ANA loaded with 2 nM OPN effectively repaired transected sciatic nerves in rats, potentially through enhancing axonal sprouting and exerting anti-inflammatory effects.

The Yin-Yang of osteopontin in nervous system diseases: damage versus repair

Osteopontin is a broadly expressed pleiotropic protein, and is attracting increased attention because of its role in the pathophysiology of several inflammatory, degenerative, autoimmune, and oncologic diseases. In fact, in the last decade, several studies have shown that osteopontin contributes to tissue damage not only by recruiting harmful inflammatory cells to the site of lesion, but also increasing their survival. The detrimental role of osteopontin has been indeed well documented in the context of different neurological conditions (i.e., multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's diseases). Intriguingly, recent findings show that osteopontin is involved not only in promoting tissue damage (the Yin), but also in repair/regenerative mechanisms (the Yang), mostly triggered by the inflammatory response. These two apparently discordant roles are partly related to the presence of different functional domains in the osteopontin molecule, which are exposed after thrombin or metalloproteases cleavages. Such functional domains may in turn activate intracellular signaling pathways and mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. This review describes the current knowledge on the Yin and Yang features of osteopontin in nervous system diseases. Understanding the mechanisms behind the Yin/Yang would be relevant to develop highly specific tools targeting this multifunctional protein.

Intracellular Osteopontin Induced by CagA-positive Helicobacter pylori Promotes Beta-catenin Accumulation and Interleukin-8 Secretion in Gastric Epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Osteopontin, an important immune modulator and oncogenic promoter, is upregulated in H. pylori-infected gastric mucosa. However, the underlying mechanisms and biological significance are poorly understood. We investigated whether osteopontin was upregulated in gastric epithelial cells by H. pylori and the virulence factors involved. Moreover, cellular component changes caused by osteopontin were also investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The gastric epithelial cell line MKN45 was cocultured with wild-type and mutant H. pylori to analyze osteopontin expression. Beta-catenin levels in cell lysate and interleukin-8 levels in supernatant were analyzed. The difference in osteopontin expression levels in both gastric epithelium and plasma was compared between H. pylori-infected patients and uninfected controls.

RESULTS

H. pylori induced intracellular, but not secretory, osteopontin expression in MKN45 cells. Accordingly, osteopontin expression intensity in gastric epithelium was higher in H. pylori-infected patients than in controls, but osteopontin levels in plasma were similar between both patient groups. H. pylori virulence factor CagA delivered via the type IV secretion system was essential for intracellular osteopontin upregulation. H. pylori induced β-catenin accumulation and interleukin-8 secretion, whereas osteopontin knockdown completely abrogated these effects, in MKN45 cells. TLR2 antagonist abolished iOPN expression induced by H. pylori gastritis strain, but not by H. pylori cancer strain.

CONCLUSIONS

H. pylori is dependent on CagA translocation via the type IV secretion system to induce intracellular osteopontin expression in gastric epithelial cells. Upregulated intracellular osteopontin may promote gastric carcinogenesis via increased β-catenin accumulation and interleukin-8 secretion.

Novel roles for osteopontin and clusterin in peripheral motor and sensory axon regeneration

Previous studies demonstrated that Schwann cells (SCs) express distinct motor and sensory phenotypes, which impact the ability of these pathways to selectively support regenerating neurons. In the present study, unbiased microarray analysis was used to examine differential gene expression in denervated motor and sensory pathways in rats. Several genes that were significantly upregulated in either denervated sensory or motor pathways were identified and two secreted factors were selected for further analysis: osteopontin (OPN) and clusterin (CLU) which were upregulated in denervated motor and sensory pathways, respectively. Sciatic nerve transection induced upregulation of OPN and CLU and expression of both returned to baseline levels with ensuing regeneration. In vitro analysis using exogenously applied OPN induced outgrowth of motor but not sensory neurons. CLU, however, induced outgrowth of sensory neurons, but not motor neurons. To assess the functional importance of OPN and CLU, peripheral nerve regeneration was examined in OPN and CLU(-/-) mice. When compared with OPN(+/+) mice, motor neuron regeneration was reduced in OPN(-/-) mice. Impaired regeneration through OPN(-/-) peripheral nerves grafted into OPN(+/+) mice indicated that loss of OPN in SCs was responsible for reduced motor regeneration. Sensory neuron regeneration was impaired in CLU(-/-) mice following sciatic nerve crush and impaired regeneration nerve fibers through CLU(-/-) nerve grafts transplanted into CLU(+/+) mice indicated that reduced sensory regeneration is likely due to SC-derived CLU. Together, these studies suggest unique roles for SC-derived OPN and CLU in regeneration of peripheral motor and sensory axons.

Osteopontin as a two-sided mediator in acute neuroinflammation in rat models

Osteopontin (OPN) plays an important role in the initiation of inflammation, affecting cell adhesion, chemotaxis, immune regulation, and protection against apoptosis, depending on its intracellular or extracellular localization. Although OPN in inflammation of the autoimmune central nervous system is proinflammatory, recent studies have shown that OPN during the induction stage of inflammation may also participate in neuroprotection and neurite growth. The present review examines the dual roles of OPN, specifically, its proinflammatory and subsequent neuroprotective roles, in acute neuroinflammation in rat models, including experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, brain injury, and autoimmune neuritis. All of these models are characterized by acute neuroinflammation, followed by remodeling of neural tissues.

The immunocompetence of Schwann cells

Schwann cells are the myelinating glial cells of the peripheral nervous system that support and ensheath axons with myelin to enable rapid saltatory signal propagation in the axon. Immunocompetence, however, has only recently been recognized as an important feature of Schwann cells. An autoimmune response against components of the peripheral nervous system triggers disabling inflammatory neuropathies in patients and corresponding animal models. The immune system participates in nerve damage and disease manifestation even in non-inflammatory hereditary neuropathies. A growing body of evidence suggests that Schwann cells may modulate local immune responses by recognizing and presenting antigens and may also influence and terminate nerve inflammation by secreting cytokines. This review summarizes current knowledge on the interaction of Schwann cells with the immune system, which is involved in diseases of the peripheral nervous system.

Emerging role of mitogen-activated protein kinases in peripheral neuropathies

Among the different families of intracellular molecules that can be modulated during cell damage and repair, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are particularly interesting because they are involved in several intracellular pathways activated by injury and regeneration signals. Despite most of the studies have been performed in non-neurological models, recently a causal role for MAPKs has been postulated in central nervous system disorders. However, also in some peripheral neuropathies, MAPK changes can occur and these modifications might be relevant in the pathogenesis of the damage as well as during regeneration and repair. In this review, the current knowledge on the role of MAPKs in peripheral neuropathies will be discussed.

Immune circuitry in the peripheral nervous system

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this review is to describe the local immune circuitry in the peripheral nervous system and its dialogue with systemic immunity under pathological conditions. Specifically, interactions of the immune system with cellular and extracellular components within peripheral nerve and immune functions of tissue-resident endoneurial macrophages and Schwann cells will be discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

New insights into the elements involved in the pathogenesis of immune-mediated disorders of the peripheral nervous system provide a better understanding of the complex interplay of these cellular and molecular components in the immunology of the peripheral nervous system.

SUMMARY

The application of innovative and cutting-edge technologies to the study of immunoinflammatory disorders of the peripheral nervous system provides a better understanding of underlying principles of the organization of the immune network present in the peripheral nerve and its dialogue with the systemic immune system. This may foster the development of specific and highly effective therapies for immune-mediated disorders of the peripheral nerve.

Increased expression of osteopontin in the brain with scrapie infection

The expression of osteopontin (OPN) was studied in the brains of mice with scrapie. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analysis showed that the expression of OPN protein and mRNA was increased significantly in the scrapie-infected brains compared to the controls. The increased expression of OPN protein was largely matched with the PrP(Sc) accumulation. Immunohistochemically, OPN was intensely immunostained in neurons of the midbrain at the time of scrapie infection initiation. Particularly, OPN immunostaining was noted in the reactive astrocytes and some microglia in the scrapie brains, while those cells were devoid of OPN immunoreactivity in control brains. Overall, these findings suggest that some neurons affected by PrP(Sc) at an early stage of scrapie transiently express OPN but subsequently succumb to cell death at a later stage of scrapie; astroglial cells after scrapie infection are activated to express OPN; and increased OPN expression in these cells may play an important role in the pathology of scrapie. The precise role of OPN in scrapie needs further study.