The effect of neurotrophic factors on morphology, TRPV1 expression and capsaicin responses of cultured human DRG sensory neurons

Exosomal lncRNA XIST promotes perineural invasion of pancreatic cancer cells via miR-211-5p/GDNF

Perineural invasion (PNI) is an essential form of tumor metastasis in multiple malignant cancers, such as pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, and head and neck cancer. Growing evidence has revealed that pancreatic cancer recurrence and neuropathic pain positively correlate with PNI. Therefore, targeting PNI is a proper strategy for pancreatic cancer treatment. Exosomal lncRNA derived from pancreatic cancer cells is an essential component of the tumor microenvironment. However, whether exosomal lncXIST derived from pancreatic cancer cells can promote PNI and its exact mechanism remains to be elucidated. We show that lncXIST mediates nerve-tumor crosstalk via exosomal delivery. Our data reveal that exosomal lncXIST derived from pancreatic cancer cells is delivered to neural cells and promotes their release of glial-cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), essential in facilitating the PNI of pancreatic cancer. Mechanistically, microRNA-211-5p negatively regulates GDNF, and lncXIST serves as a miR-211-5p sponge. The function of exosomes in the dynamic interplay between nerves and cancer is confirmed in both in vivo and in vitro PNI models. Therefore, targeting pancreatic cancer cell-derived exosomal lncXIST may provide clues for a promising approach for developing a new strategy to combat PNI of pancreatic cancer.

Elevated plasma levels of calcitonin gene-related peptide in individuals with rosacea: A cross-sectional case-control study

BACKGROUND

Understanding the role of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in the pathogenesis of rosacea might provide new therapeutic avenues for individuals with this disease.

OBJECTIVE

To compare plasma levels of CGRP between individuals with rosacea and healthy controls.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional case-control study conducted in Copenhagen, Denmark, we collected blood samples from the antecubital vein from adults with rosacea and from healthy controls.

RESULTS

We enrolled 123 individuals with rosacea and 68 healthy controls. After adjusting for age and sex, plasma levels of CGRP were significantly higher in individuals with rosacea (mean, 95% confidence interval: 140.21 pmol/L, 128.50-151.92 pmol/L), compared with controls (110.77 pmol/L, 99.91-120.14 pmol/L, p = 0.002). Plasma levels of CGRP were not affected by age, sex, BMI, concomitant migraine, rosacea sub- or phenotype, concomitant disease or current treatment.

LIMITATIONS

Participants were not age-, sex- and BMI-matched.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Elevated plasma levels of CGRP in individuals with rosacea suggest a role of CGRP in the pathogenesis of rosacea. Targeting CGRP signalling might hold therapeutic promise in people affected by this disease.

CLINICALTRIALS

GOV LISTING

NCT03872050.

Terpenes in Cannabis sativa Inhibit Capsaicin Responses in Rat DRG Neurons via Na+/K+ ATPase Activation

Terpenes in Cannabis sativa exert analgesic effects, but the mechanisms are uncertain. We examined the effects of 10 terpenes on capsaicin responses in an established model of neuronal hypersensitivity. Adult rat DRG neurons cultured with neurotrophic factors NGF and GDNF were loaded with Fura2AM for calcium imaging, and treated with individual terpenes or vehicle for 5 min, followed by 1 µMol capsaicin. In vehicle treated control experiments, capsaicin elicited immediate and sustained calcium influx. Most neurons treated with terpenes responded to capsaicin after 6-8 min. Few neurons showed immediate capsaicin responses that were transient or normal. The delayed responses were found to be due to calcium released from the endoplasmic reticulum, as they were maintained in calcium/magnesium free media, but not after thapsigargin pre-treatment. Terpene inhibition of calcium influx was reversed after washout of medium, in the absence of terpenes, and in the presence of the Na+/K+ ATPase inhibitor ouabain, but not CB1 or CB2 receptor antagonists. Thus, terpenes inhibit capsaicin evoked calcium influx by Na+/K+ ATPase activation. Immunofluorescence showed TRPV1 co-expression with α1β1 Na+/K+ ATPase in most neurons while others were either TRPV1 or α1β1 Na+/K+ ATPase positive.

Cancer neuroscience: State of the field, emerging directions

The nervous system governs both ontogeny and oncology. Regulating organogenesis during development, maintaining homeostasis, and promoting plasticity throughout life, the nervous system plays parallel roles in the regulation of cancers. Foundational discoveries have elucidated direct paracrine and electrochemical communication between neurons and cancer cells, as well as indirect interactions through neural effects on the immune system and stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment in a wide range of malignancies. Nervous system-cancer interactions can regulate oncogenesis, growth, invasion and metastatic spread, treatment resistance, stimulation of tumor-promoting inflammation, and impairment of anti-cancer immunity. Progress in cancer neuroscience may create an important new pillar of cancer therapy.

Peripheral Neuroplasticity of Respiratory Chemoreflexes, Induced by Prenatal Nicotinic Exposure: Implication for SIDS

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) occurs during sleep in seemingly healthy infants. Maternal cigarette smoking and hypoxemia during sleep are assumed to be the major causal factors. Depressed hypoxic ventilatory response (dHVR) is observed in infants with high risk of SIDS, and apneas (lethal ventilatory arrest) appear during the fatal episode of SIDS. Disturbance of the respiratory center has been proposed to be involved, but the pathogenesis of SIDS is still not fully understood. Peripherally, the carotid body is critical to generate HVR, and bronchopulmonary and superior laryngeal C-fibers (PCFs and SLCFs) are important for triggering central apneas; however, their roles in the pathogenesis of SIDS have not been explored until recently. There are three lines of recently accumulated evidence to show the disorders of peripheral sensory afferent-mediated respiratory chemoreflexes in rat pups with prenatal nicotinic exposure (a SIDS model) in which acute severe hypoxia leads to dHVR followed by lethal apneas. (1) The carotid body-mediated HVR is suppressed with a reduction of the number and sensitivity of glomus cells. (2) PCF-mediated apneic response is largely prolonged via increased PCF density, pulmonary IL-1β and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) release, along with the enhanced expression of TRPV1, NK₁R, IL1RI and 5-HT₃R in pulmonary C-neurons to strengthen these neural responses to capsaicin, a selective stimulant to C-fibers. (3) SLCF-mediated apnea and capsaicin-induced currents in superior laryngeal C-neurons are augmented by upregulation of TRPV1 expression in these neurons. These results, along with hypoxic sensitization/stimulation of PCFs, gain insight into the mechanisms of prenatal nicotinic exposure-induced peripheral neuroplasticity responsible for dHVR and long-lasting apnea during hypoxia in rat pups. Therefore, in addition to the disturbance in the respiratory center, the disorders of peripheral sensory afferent-mediated chemoreflexes may also be involved in respiratory failure and death denoted in SIDS victims.

The Endocannabinoid Analgesic Entourage Effect: Investigations in Cultured DRG Neurons

BACKGROUND

The endocannabinoid 2-Arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG) exerts dose-related anti-nociceptive effects, which are potentiated by the related but inactive 2-palmitoyl glycerol (2-PG) and 2-linoleoyl glycerol (2-LG). This potentiation of analgesia and other in vivo measures was described as the "entourage effect". We investigated this effect on TRPV1 signalling in cultured dorsal root ganglion (DRG) nociceptors.

METHODS

Adult rat DRG neurons were cultured in medium containing NGF and GDNF at 37°C. 48 h later cultures were loaded with 2 µM Fura2AM for calcium imaging, and treated with 2-AG, 2-PG and 2-LG, individually or combined, for 5 min, followed by 1 µMol capsaicin. The amplitude and latency of capsaicin responses were measured (N=3-7 rats, controls N=16), and analysed.

RESULTS

In controls, 1 µMol capsaicin elicited immediate calcium influx in a subset of neurons, with average latency of 1.27 ± 0.2 s and amplitude of 0.15 ± 0.01 Units. 2-AG (10-100 µMol) elicited calcium influx in some neurons. In the presence of 2-AG (0.001-100 µMol), capsaicin responses were markedly delayed in 64% neurons by up to 320 s (P<0.001). 2-PG increased capsaicin response latency at 0.1 nMol-100 µMol (P<0.001), in 60% neurons, as did 2-LG at 0.1-100 µMol (P<0.001), in 76% neurons. Increased capsaicin response latency due to 2-AG and 2-PG was sensitive to the CB2 but not to the CB1 receptor antagonist. Combined application of 1 µMol 2-AG, 5 µMol 2-PG and 10 µMol 2-LG, also resulted in significantly increased capsaicin response latency up to 281.5 ± 41.5 s (P<0.001), in 96% neurons, that was partially restored by the CB2, but not the CB1 antagonist.

CONCLUSION

2-AG, 2-LG and 2-PG significantly delayed TRPV1 signalling in the majority of capsaicin-sensitive DRG neurons, that was markedly increased following combined application. Further studies of these endocannabinoids are required to identify the underlying mechanisms.

Therapeutic avenues for cancer neuroscience: translational frontiers and clinical opportunities

With increasing attention on the essential roles of the tumour microenvironment in recent years, the nervous system has emerged as a novel and crucial facilitator of cancer growth. In this Review, we describe the foundational, translational, and clinical advances illustrating how nerves contribute to tumour proliferation, stress adaptation, immunomodulation, metastasis, electrical hyperactivity and seizures, and neuropathic pain. Collectively, this expanding knowledge base reveals multiple therapeutic avenues for cancer neuroscience that warrant further exploration in clinical studies. We discuss the available clinical data, including ongoing trials investigating novel agents targeting the tumour-nerve axis, and the therapeutic potential for repurposing existing neuroactive drugs as an anti-cancer approach, particularly in combination with established treatment regimens. Lastly, we discuss the clinical challenges of these treatment strategies and highlight unanswered questions and future directions in the burgeoning field of cancer neuroscience.

Dose-Related Inhibition of Capsaicin Responses by Cannabinoids CBG, CBD, THC and their Combination in Cultured Sensory Neurons

Background

The analgesic effects of Cannabis sativa are mediated by ∆⁹ tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but the contributions of other bioactive complex components, including cannabigerol (CBG) and cannabidiol (CBD), are unclear. We describe the individual and combined effects of CBG, CBD and THC, on blocking capsaicin responses in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, in an in vitro model of nociceptor hypersensitivity.

Materials and Methods

Adult rat DRG were dissected and enzyme digested to obtain a neuronal suspension in BSF2 medium containing 2% fetal calf serum, and the neurotrophic factors NGF and GDNF. After 48 h, cultured neurons were loaded with Fura-2 AM, to determine the effects of cannabinoids on capsaicin responses using calcium imaging. In control experiments, neurons were treated with vehicle, followed by 1 µM capsaicin. In cannabinoid treated cultures, CBG, CBD or THC were applied individually, or combined (1:1:1 ratio), followed by 1 µM capsaicin. Data from n = 6 experiments were analysed with Student’s t-test and Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

Results

CBG, CBD and THC, applied individually, elicited dose-related calcium influx in a subset of DRG neurons, and a corresponding dose-related reduction of subsequent responses to capsaicin. Maximum inhibition of capsaicin responses was observed at 30 µM CBG, 100 µM CBD, and 100 µM THC individually, and with combined CBD+CBG+THC (1:1:1) at 90 µM. THC+CBD+CBG combined in a 1:1:1 proportion has the potential to enhance the potency of these compounds applied individually. There was a high correlation between cannabinoid-mediated calcium influx and reduction of capsaicin responses: CBG = −0.88, THC = −0.97, CBD = −0.99 and combined CBG + THC + CBD = −1.00.

Conclusion

CBG, CBD and THC demonstrated potent dose-related inhibition of capsaicin responses in DRG neurons when applied individually in vitro, and enhanced when applied in combination, being most effective at 90 μM. Thus, efficacy and tolerability of THC could be improved in combination with CBG and CBD at optimal concentrations, which deserve further studies in vivo.

Investigating the Function of Adult DRG Neuron Axons Using an In Vitro Microfluidic Culture System

A critical role of the peripheral axons of nociceptors of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) is the conduction of all-or-nothing action potentials from peripheral nerve endings to the central nervous system for the perception of noxious stimuli. Plasticity along multiple sites along the pain axis has now been widely implicated in the maladaptive changes that occur in pathological pain states such as neuropathic and inflammatory pain. Notably, increasing evidence suggests that nociceptive axons actively participate through the local expression of ion channels, receptors, and signal transduction molecules through axonal mRNA translation machinery that is independent of the soma component. In this report, we explore the sensitization of sensory neurons through the treatment of compartmentalized axon-like structures spanning microchannels that have been treated with the cytokine IL-6 and, subsequently, capsaicin. These data demonstrate the utility of isolating DRG axon-like structures using microfluidic systems, laying the groundwork for constructing the complex in vitro models of cellular networks that are involved in pain signaling for targeted pharmacological and genetic perturbations.

Infusion of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide-38 in Patients with Rosacea Induces Flushing and Facial Edema that Can Be Attenuated by Sumatriptan

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis of rosacea is incompletely understood. Signaling neuropeptides, including PACAP, a regulator of vasodilation and edema, are upregulated in rosacea skin. Here, we evaluated PACAP38-induced rosacea features and examined whether a 5-HT_1B/1D receptor agonist could reduce these features.

METHODS

A total of 35 patients with erythematotelangiectatic rosacea received an intravenous infusion of 10 pmol/kg/minute of PACAP38 followed by an intravenous infusion of 4 mg sumatriptan or placebo (saline) on two study days in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, and cross-over trial.

RESULTS

PACAP38 increased facial skin blood flow by 90%, dilated the superficial temporal artery by 56%, and induced prolonged flushing and facial edema. Compared with placebo, sumatriptan reduced PACAP38-induced facial skin blood flow for 50 minutes (P = 0.023), constricted the superficial temporal artery for 80 minutes (P = 0.010), and reduced duration of flushing (P = 0.001) and facial edema (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We established a clinical experimental model of rosacea features and showed that sumatriptan was able to attenuate PACAP38-induced rosacea flushing and edema. Findings support a key role of PACAP38 in rosacea flushing pathogenesis. It remains unknown whether PACAP38 inhibition can improve rosacea.

TRIAL REGISTER

The trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.govNCT03878784 in March 2019.

Involvement of Neuro-Immune Interactions in Pruritus With Special Focus on Receptor Expressions

Pruritus is a common, but very challenging symptom with a wide diversity of underlying causes like dermatological, systemic, neurological and psychiatric diseases. In dermatology, pruritus is the most frequent symptom both in its acute and chronic form (over 6 weeks in duration). Treatment of chronic pruritus often remains challenging. Affected patients who suffer from moderate to severe pruritus have a significantly reduced quality of life. The underlying physiology of pruritus is very complex, involving a diverse network of components in the skin including resident cells such as keratinocytes and sensory neurons as well as transiently infiltrating cells such as certain immune cells. Previous research has established that there is a significant crosstalk among the stratum corneum, nerve fibers and various immune cells, such as keratinocytes, T cells, basophils, eosinophils and mast cells. In this regard, interactions between receptors on cutaneous and spinal neurons or on different immune cells play an important role in the processing of signals which are important for the transmission of pruritus. In this review, we discuss the role of various receptors involved in pruritus and inflammation, such as TRPV1 and TRPA1, IL-31RA and OSMR, TSLPR, PAR-2, NK1R, H1R and H4R, MRGPRs as well as TrkA, with a focus on interaction between nerve fibers and different immune cells. Emerging evidence shows that neuro-immune interactions play a pivotal role in mediating pruritus-associated inflammatory skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis or chronic spontaneous urticaria. Targeting these bidirectional neuro-immune interactions and the involved pruritus-specific receptors is likely to contribute to novel insights into the underlying pathogenesis and targeted treatment options of pruritus.

HIF-1α inhibition alleviates the exaggerated exercise pressor reflex in rats with peripheral artery disease induced by femoral artery occlusion

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) is a transcription factor mediating adaptive responses to hypoxia and ischemia. Our previous work showed that HIF-1α is increased in muscle sensory nerves of rats with peripheral artery disease (PAD) induced by femoral artery occlusion. The present study was further to examine the role played by HIF-1α in regulating the response of arterial blood pressure (BP) to the activation of muscle afferent nerve during static muscle contraction in rats with femoral artery occlusion. A rat model of femoral artery ligation was used to study PAD in this study. Western blot analysis was employed to examine the protein levels of HIF-1α in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) tissues. BAY87, a synthesized compound with the characteristics of highly potent and specific suppressive effects on expression and activity of HIF-1α, was given into the arterial blood supply of the ischemic hindlimb muscles before the exercise pressor reflex was evoked by static muscle contraction. First, HIF-1α was increased in the DRG of occluded limbs (optical density: 0.89 ± 0.13 in control versus 1.5 ± 0.05 in occlusion; p < 0.05, n = 6 in each group). Arterial injection of BAY87 (0.2 mg/kg) then inhibited expression of HIF-1α in the DRG of occluded limbs 3 hr following its injection (optical density: 1.02 ± 0.09 in occluded limbs with BAY87 versus 1.06 ± 0.1 in control limbs; p > 0.05, n = 5 in each group). In addition, muscle contraction evoked a greater increase in BP in occluded rats. BAY87 attenuated the enhanced BP response in occluded rats to a greater degree than in control rats. Our data suggest that the inhibition of HIF-1α alleviates the exaggeration of the exercise pressor reflex in rats under ischemic circumstances of the hindlimbs in PAD induced by femoral artery occlusion.

The role of urea in neuronal degeneration and sensitization: An in vitro model of uremic neuropathy

Background

Uremic neuropathy commonly affects patients with chronic kidney disease, with painful sensations in the feet, followed by numbness and weakness in the legs and hands. The symptoms usually resolve following kidney transplantation, but the mechanisms of uremic neuropathy and associated pain symptoms remain unknown. As blood urea levels are elevated in patients with chronic kidney disease, we examined the morphological and functional effects of clinically observed levels of urea on sensory neurons.

Methods

Rat dorsal root ganglion neurons were treated with 10 or 50 mmol/L urea for 48 h, fixed and immunostained for PGP9.5 and βIII tubulin immunofluorescence. Neurons were also immunostained for TRPV1, TRPM8 and Gap43 expression, and the capsaicin sensitivity of urea- or vehicle-treated neurons was determined.

Results

Urea-treated neurons had degenerating neurites with diminished PGP9.5 immunofluorescence, and swollen, retracted growth cones. βIII tubulin appeared clumped after urea treatment. After 48 hours urea treatment, neurite lengths were significantly reduced to 60 ± 2.6% (10 mmol/L, **P < 0.01), and to 56.2 ± 3.3% (50 mmol/L, **P < 0.01), compared with control neurons. Fewer neurons survived urea treatment, with 70.08 ± 13.3% remaining after 10 mmol/L (*P < 0.05) and 61.49 ± 7.4% after 50 mmol/L urea treatment (**P < 0.01), compared with controls. The proportion of neurons expressing TRPV1 was reduced after urea treatment, but not TRPM8 expressing neurons. In functional studies, treatment with urea resulted in dose-dependent neuronal sensitization. Capsaicin responses were significantly increased to 115.29 ± 3.4% (10 mmol/L, **P < 0.01) and 125.3 ± 4.2% (50 mmol/L, **P < 0.01), compared with controls. Sensitization due to urea was eliminated in the presence of the TRPV1 inhibitor SB705498, the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor PD98059, the PI3 kinase inhibitor LY294002 and the TRPM8 inhibitor N-(3-Aminopropyl)-2-[(3-methylphenyl)methoxy]-N-(2-thienylmethyl)benzamide (AMTB hydrochloride).

Conclusion

Neurite degeneration and sensitization are consistent with uremic neuropathy and provide a disease-relevant model to test new treatments.

Conserved Expression of Nav1.7 and Nav1.8 Contribute to the Spontaneous and Thermally Evoked Excitability in IL-6 and NGF-Sensitized Adult Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons In Vitro

Sensory neurons respond to noxious stimuli by relaying information from the periphery to the central nervous system via action potentials driven by voltage-gated sodium channels, specifically Nav1.7 and Nav1.8. These channels play a key role in the manifestation of inflammatory pain. The ability to screen compounds that modulate voltage-gated sodium channels using cell-based assays assumes that key channels present in vivo is maintained in vitro. Prior electrophysiological work in vitro utilized acutely dissociated tissues, however, maintaining this preparation for long periods is difficult. A potential alternative involves multi-electrode arrays which permit long-term measurements of neural spike activity and are well suited for assessing persistent sensitization consistent with chronic pain. Here, we demonstrate that the addition of two inflammatory mediators associated with chronic inflammatory pain, nerve growth factor (NGF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), to adult DRG neurons increases their firing rates on multi-electrode arrays in vitro. Nav1.7 and Nav1.8 proteins are readily detected in cultured neurons and contribute to evoked activity. The blockade of both Nav1.7 and Nav1.8, has a profound impact on thermally evoked firing after treatment with IL-6 and NGF. This work underscores the utility of multi-electrode arrays for pharmacological studies of sensory neurons and may facilitate the discovery and mechanistic analyses of anti-nociceptive compounds.

CBD Effects on TRPV1 Signaling Pathways in Cultured DRG Neurons

INTRODUCTION

Cannabidiol (CBD) is reported to produce pain relief, but the clinically relevant cellular and molecular mechanisms remain uncertain. The TRPV1 receptor integrates noxious stimuli and plays a key role in pain signaling. Hence, we conducted in vitro studies, to elucidate the efficacy and mechanisms of CBD for inhibiting neuronal hypersensitivity in cultured rat sensory neurons, following activation of TRPV1.

METHODS

Adult rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons were cultured and supplemented with the neurotrophic factors NGF and GDNF, in an established model of neuronal hypersensitivity. Neurons were stimulated with CBD (Adven 150, EMMAC Life Sciences) at 1, 10, 100 nMol/L and 1, 10 and 50 µMol/L, 48 h after plating. In separate experiments, DRG neurons were also stimulated with capsaicin with or without CBD (1 nMol/L to10 µMol/L), in a functional calcium imaging assay. The effects of the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin and the calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporin were determined. We also measured forskolin-stimulated cAMP levels, without and after treatment with CBD, using a homogenous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF) assay. The results were analysed using Mann-Whitney test.

RESULTS

DRG neurons treated with 10 and 50 µMol/L CBD showed calcium influx, but not at lower doses. Neurons treated with capsaicin demonstrated robust calcium influx, which was dose-dependently reduced in the presence of low dose CBD (IC₅₀ = 100 nMol/L). The inhibition or desensitization by CBD was reversed in the presence of forskolin and cyclosporin. Forskolin-stimulated cAMP levels were significantly reduced in CBD treated neurons.

CONCLUSION

CBD at low doses corresponding to plasma concentrations observed physiologically inhibits or desensitizes neuronal TRPV1 signalling by inhibiting the adenylyl cyclase - cAMP pathway, which is essential for maintaining TRPV1 phosphorylation and sensitization. CBD also facilitated calcineurin-mediated TRPV1 inhibition. These mechanisms may underlie nociceptor desensitization and the therapeutic effect of CBD in animal models and patients with acute and chronic pain.

Human Dorsal Root Ganglia

Sensory neurons with cell bodies situated in dorsal root ganglia convey information from external or internal sites of the body such as actual or potential harm, temperature or muscle length to the central nervous system. In recent years, large investigative efforts have worked toward an understanding of different types of DRG neurons at transcriptional, translational, and functional levels. These studies most commonly rely on data obtained from laboratory animals. Human DRG, however, have received far less investigative focus over the last 30 years. Nevertheless, knowledge about human sensory neurons is critical for a translational research approach and future therapeutic development. This review aims to summarize both historical and emerging information about the size and location of human DRG, and highlight advances in the understanding of the neurochemical characteristics of human DRG neurons, in particular nociceptive neurons.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor expression in clinical pain disorder tissues and role in neuronal sensitization

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text.

Introduction:

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor (GM-CSFR) is highly expressed in peripheral macrophages and microglia, and is involved in arthritis and cancer pain in animal models. However, there is limited information on GM-CSFR expression in human central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nerves, or dorsal root ganglia (DRG), particularly in chronic pain conditions.

Objectives:

Immunohistochemistry was used to quantify GM-CSFR expression levels in human tissues, and functional sensory effects of GM-CSF were studied in cultured DRG neurons.

Results:

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor was markedly increased in microglia at lesional sites of multiple sclerosis spinal cords (P = 0.01), which co-localised with macrophage marker CD68 (P = 0.009). In human DRG, GM-CSFR was expressed in a subset of small/medium diameter cells (30%) and few large cells (10%), with no significant change in avulsion-injured DRG. In peripheral nerves, there was a marked decrease in axonal GM-CSFR after chronic painful nerve injury (P = 0.004) and in painful neuromas (P = 0.0043); CD-68–positive macrophages were increased (P = 0.017) but did not appear to express GM-CSFR. Although control synovium showed absent GM-CSFR immunostaining, this was markedly increased in macrophages of painful osteoarthritis knee synovium. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor was expressed in 17 ± 1.7% of small-/medium-sized cultured adult rat DRG neurons, and in 27 ± 3.3% of TRPV1-positive neurons. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor treatment sensitized capsaicin responses in vitro, which were diminished by p38 MAPK or TrkA inhibitors.

Conclusion:

Our findings support GM-CSFR as a therapeutic target for pain and hypersensitivity in clinical CNS and peripheral inflammatory conditions. Although GM-CSFR was decreased in chronic painful injured peripheral nerves, it could mediate CNS neuroinflammatory effects, which deserves study.

Comparison of the Rat and Human Dorsal Root Ganglion Proteome

Dorsal root ganglion (DRG) are a key tissue in the nervous system that have a role in neurological disease, particularly pain. Despite the importance of this tissue, the proteome of DRG is poorly understood, and it is unknown whether the proteome varies between organisms or different DRG along the spine. Therefore, we profiled the proteome of human and rat DRG. We identified 5,245 proteins in human DRG and 4959 proteins in rat DRG. Across species the proteome is largely conserved with some notable differences. While the most abundant proteins in both rat and human DRG played a role in extracellular functions and myelin sheeth, proteins detected only in humans mapped to roles in immune function whereas those detected only in rat mapped to roles in localization and transport. The DRG proteome between human T11 and L2 vertebrae was nearly identical indicating DRG from different vertebrae are representative of one another. Finally, we asked if this data could be used to enhance translatability by identifying mechanisms that modulate cellular phenotypes representative of pain in different species. Based on our data we tested and discovered that MAP4K4 inhibitor treatment increased neurite outgrowth in rat DRG as in human SH-SY5Y cells.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) expression by nerve fibres in inflammatory bowel disease and functional effects in cultured neurons

INTRODUCTION

Glucagon like-peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists diminish appetite and may contribute to the weight loss in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to determine, for the first time, the expression of GLP-1R by colon nerve fibres in patients with IBD, and functional effects of its agonists in cultured rat and human sensory neurons.

METHODS

GLP-1R and other nerve markers were studied by immunohistochemistry in colon biopsies from patients with IBD (n = 16) and controls (n = 8), human dorsal root ganglia (DRG) tissue, and in GLP-1R transfected HEK293 cells. The morphological effects of incretin hormones oxyntomodulin, exendin-4 and glucagon were studied on neurite extension in cultured DRG neurons, and their functional effects on capsaicin and ATP signalling, using calcium imaging.

RESULTS

Significantly increased numbers of colonic mucosal nerve fibres were observed in IBD biopsies expressing GLP-1R (p = 0.0013), the pan-neuronal marker PGP9.5 (p = 0.0008), and sensory neuropeptide CGRP (p = 0.0014). An increase of GLP-1R positive nerve fibres in IBD colon was confirmed with a different antibody to GLP-1R (p = 0.016). GLP-1R immunostaining was intensely positive in small and medium-sized neurons in human DRG, and in human and rat DRG cultured neurons. Co-localization of GLP-1R expression with neuronal markers in colon and DRG confirmed the neural expression of GLP-1R, and antibody specificity was confirmed in HEK293 cells transfected with the GLP-1R. Treatment with oxyntomodulin, exendin-4 and GLP-1 increased neurite length in cultured neurons compared with controls, but did not stimulate calcium influx directly, or affect capsaicin responses. However, exendin-4 significantly enhanced ATP responses in human DRG neurons.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that increased GLP-1R innervation in IBD bowel could mediate enhanced visceral afferent signalling, and provide a peripheral target for therapeutic intervention. The differential effect of GLP-1R agonists on capsaicin and ATP responses in neurons suggest they may not affect pain mechanisms mediated by the capsaicin receptor TRPV1, but may enhance the effects of purinergic agonists.

Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 2/3 (mGluR2/3) Activation Suppresses TRPV1 Sensitization in Mouse, But Not Human, Sensory Neurons

The use of human tissue to validate putative analgesic targets identified in rodents is a promising strategy for improving the historically poor translational record of preclinical pain research. We recently demonstrated that in mouse and human sensory neurons, agonists for metabotropic glutamate receptors 2 and 3 (mGluR2/3) reduce membrane hyperexcitability produced by the inflammatory mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Previous rodent studies indicate that mGluR2/3 can also reduce peripheral sensitization by suppressing inflammation-induced sensitization of TRPV1. Whether this observation similarly translates to human sensory neurons has not yet been tested. We found that activation of mGluR2/3 with the agonist APDC suppressed PGE2-induced sensitization of TRPV1 in mouse, but not human, sensory neurons. We also evaluated sensory neuron expression of the gene transcripts for mGluR2 (Grm2), mGluR3 (Grm3), and TRPV1 (Trpv1). The majority of Trpv1+ mouse and human sensory neurons expressed Grm2 and/or Grm3, and in both mice and humans, Grm2 was expressed in a greater percentage of sensory neurons than Grm3. Although we demonstrated a functional difference in the modulation of TRPV1 sensitization by mGluR2/3 activation between mouse and human, there were no species differences in the gene transcript colocalization of mGluR2 or mGluR3 with TRPV1 that might explain this functional difference. Taken together with our previous work, these results suggest that mGluR2/3 activation suppresses only some aspects of human sensory neuron sensitization caused by PGE2. These differences have implications for potential healthy human voluntary studies or clinical trials evaluating the analgesic efficacy of mGluR2/3 agonists or positive allosteric modulators.

Peripheral Mechanisms of Ischemic Myalgia

Musculoskeletal pain due to ischemia is present in a variety of clinical conditions including peripheral vascular disease (PVD), sickle cell disease (SCD), complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), and even fibromyalgia (FM). The clinical features associated with deep tissue ischemia are unique because although the subjective description of pain is common to other forms of myalgia, patients with ischemic muscle pain often respond poorly to conventional analgesic therapies. Moreover, these patients also display increased cardiovascular responses to muscle contraction, which often leads to exercise intolerance or exacerbation of underlying cardiovascular conditions. This suggests that the mechanisms of myalgia development and the role of altered cardiovascular function under conditions of ischemia may be distinct compared to other injuries/diseases of the muscles. It is widely accepted that group III and IV muscle afferents play an important role in the development of pain due to ischemia. These same muscle afferents also form the sensory component of the exercise pressor reflex (EPR), which is the increase in heart rate and blood pressure (BP) experienced after muscle contraction. Studies suggest that afferent sensitization after ischemia depends on interactions between purinergic (P2X and P2Y) receptors, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, and acid sensing ion channels (ASICs) in individual populations of peripheral sensory neurons. Specific alterations in primary afferent function through these receptor mechanisms correlate with increased pain related behaviors and altered EPRs. Recent evidence suggests that factors within the muscles during ischemic conditions including upregulation of growth factors and cytokines, and microvascular changes may be linked to the overexpression of these different receptor molecules in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) that in turn modulate pain and sympathetic reflexes. In this review article, we will discuss the peripheral mechanisms involved in the development of ischemic myalgia and the role that primary sensory neurons play in EPR modulation.

DRG Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel 1.7 Is Upregulated in Paclitaxel-Induced Neuropathy in Rats and in Humans with Neuropathic Pain

Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a common adverse effect experienced by cancer patients receiving treatment with paclitaxel. The voltage-gated sodium channel 1.7 (Na_v1.7) plays an important role in multiple preclinical models of neuropathic pain and in inherited human pain phenotypes, and its gene expression is increased in dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) of paclitaxel-treated rats. Hence, the potential of change in the expression and function of Na_v1.7 protein in DRGs from male rats with paclitaxel-related CIPN and from male and female humans with cancer-related neuropathic pain was tested here. Double immunofluorescence in CIPN rats showed that Na_v1.7 was upregulated in small DRG neuron somata, especially those also expressing calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and in central processes of these cells in the superficial spinal dorsal horn. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in rat DRG neurons revealed that paclitaxel induced an enhancement of ProTx II (a selective Na_v1.7 channel blocker)-sensitive sodium currents. Bath-applied ProTx II suppressed spontaneous action potentials in DRG neurons occurring in rats with CIPN, while intrathecal injection of ProTx II significantly attenuated behavioral signs of CIPN. Complementarily, DRG neurons isolated from segments where patients had a history of neuropathic pain also showed electrophysiological and immunofluorescence results indicating an increased expression of Na_v1.7 associated with spontaneous activity. Na_v1.7 was also colocalized in human cells expressing transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 and CGRP. Furthermore, ProTx II decreased firing frequency in human DRGs with spontaneous action potentials. This study suggests that Na_v1.7 may provide a potential new target for the treatment of neuropathic pain, including chemotherapy (paclitaxel)-induced neuropathic pain.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This work demonstrates that the expression and function of the voltage-gated sodium channel Na_v1.7 are increased in a preclinical model of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN), the most common treatment-limiting side effect of all the most common anticancer therapies. This is key as gain-of-function mutations in human Na_v1.7 recapitulate both the distribution and pain percept as shown by CIPN patients. This work also shows that Na_v1.7 is increased in human DRG neurons only in dermatomes where patients are experiencing acquired neuropathic pain symptoms. This work therefore has major translational impact, indicating an important novel therapeutic avenue for neuropathic pain as a class.

Dorsal root ganglion neurons become hyperexcitable and increase expression of voltage-gated T-type calcium channels (Cav3.2) in paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy

Here, it is shown that paclitaxel-induced neuropathy is associated with the development of spontaneous activity (SA) and hyperexcitability in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons that is paralleled by increased expression of low-voltage-activated calcium channels (T-type; Cav3.2). The percentage of DRG neurons showing SA and the overall mean rate of SA were significantly higher at day 7 in rats receiving paclitaxel treatment than in rats receiving vehicle. Cav3.2 expression was increased in L4-L6 DRG and spinal cord segments in paclitaxel-treated rats, localized to small calcitonin gene-related peptide and isolectin B4 expressing DRG neurons and to glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive spinal cord cells. Cav3.2 expression was also co-localized with toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in both the DRG and the dorsal horn. T-type current amplitudes and density were increased at day 7 after paclitaxel treatment. Perfusion of the TLR4 agonist lipopolysaccharide directly activated DRG neurons, whereas this was prevented by pretreatment with the specific T-type calcium channel inhibitor ML218 hydrochloride. Paclitaxel-induced behavioral hypersensitivity to mechanical stimuli in rats was prevented but not reversed by spinal administration of ML218 hydrochloride or intravenous injection of the TLR4 antagonist TAK242. Paclitaxel induced inward current and action potential discharges in cultured human DRG neurons, and this was blocked by ML218 hydrochloride pretreatment. Furthermore, ML218 hydrochloride decreased firing frequency in human DRG, where spontaneous action potentials were present. In summary, Cav3.2 in concert with TLR4 in DRG neurons appears to contribute to paclitaxel-induced neuropathy.

Prenatal nicotinic exposure prolongs superior laryngeal C-fiber-mediated apnea and bradycardia through enhancing neuronal TRPV1 expression and excitation

Maternal cigarette smoke, including prenatal nicotinic exposure (PNE), is responsible for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). The fatal events of SIDS are characterized by severe bradycardia and life-threatening apneas. Although activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) of superior laryngeal C fibers (SLCFs) could induce bradycardia and apnea and has been implicated in SIDS pathogenesis, how PNE affects the SLCF-mediated cardiorespiratory responses remains unexplored. Here, we tested the hypothesis that PNE would aggravate the SLCF-mediated apnea and bradycardia via up-regulating TRPV1 expression and excitation of laryngeal C neurons in the nodose/jugular (N/J) ganglia. To this end, we compared the following outcomes between control and PNE rat pups at postnatal days 11-14: 1) the cardiorespiratory responses to intralaryngeal application of capsaicin (10 µg/ml, 50 µl), a selective stimulant for TRPV1 receptors, in anesthetized preparation; 2) immunoreactivity and mRNA of TRPV1 receptors of laryngeal sensory C neurons in the N/J ganglia retrogradely traced by 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate; and 3) TRPV1 currents and electrophysiological characteristics of these neurons by using whole-cell patch-clamp technique in vitro Our results showed that PNE markedly prolonged the apneic response and exacerbated the bradycardic response to intralaryngeal perfusion of capsaicin, which was associated with up-regulation of TRPV1 expression in laryngeal C neurons. In addition, PNE increased the TRPV1 currents, depressed the slow delayed rectifier potassium currents, and increased the resting membrane potential of these neurons. Our results suggest that PNE is capable of aggravating the SLCF-mediated apnea and bradycardia through TRPV1 sensitization and neuronal excitation, which may contribute to the pathogenesis of SIDS.-Gao, X., Zhao, L., Zhuang, J., Zang, N., Xu, F. Prenatal nicotinic exposure prolongs superior laryngeal C-fiber-mediated apnea and bradycardia through enhancing neuronal TRPV1 expression and excitation.

Nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor expression in clinical pain disorders and functional effects in cultured neurons

The nociceptin/orphanin FQ peptide receptor (NOP), activated by its endogenous peptide ligand nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ), exerts several effects including modulation of pain signalling. We have examined, for the first time, the tissue distribution of the NOP receptor in clinical visceral and somatic pain disorders by immunohistochemistry and assessed functional effects of NOP and μ-opioid receptor activation in cultured human and rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Quantification of NOP-positive nerve fibres within the bladder suburothelium revealed a remarkable several-fold increase in detrusor overactivity (P < 0.0001) and painful bladder syndrome patient specimens (P = 0.0014) compared with controls. In postmortem control human DRG, 75% to 80% of small/medium neurons (≤50 μm diameter) in the lumbar (somatic) and sacral (visceral) DRG were positive for NOP, and fewer large neurons; avulsion-injured cervical human DRG neurons showed similar numbers. NOP immunoreactivity was significantly decreased in injured peripheral nerves (P = 0.0004), and also in painful neuromas (P = 0.025). Calcium-imaging studies in cultured rat DRG neurons demonstrated dose-dependent inhibition of capsaicin responses in the presence of N/OFQ, with an IC50 of 8.6 pM. In cultured human DRG neurons, 32% inhibition of capsaicin responses was observed in the presence of 1 pM N/OFQ (P < 0.001). The maximum inhibition of capsaicin responses was greater with N/OFQ than μ-opioid receptor agonist DAMGO. Our findings highlight the potential of NOP agonists, particularly in urinary bladder overactivity and pain syndromes. The regulation of NOP expression in visceral and somatic sensory neurons by target-derived neurotrophic factors deserves further study, and the efficacy of NOP selective agonists in clinical trials.

Long-term non-invasive interrogation of human dorsal root ganglion neuronal cultures on an integrated microfluidic multielectrode array platform

Scientific studies in drug development and toxicology rely heavily on animal models, which often inaccurately predict the true response for human exposure. This may lead to unanticipated adverse effects or misidentified risks that result in, for example, drug candidate elimination. The utilization of human cells and tissues for in vitro physiological platforms has become a growing area of interest to bridge this gap and to more accurately predict human responses to drugs and toxins. The effects of new drugs and toxins on the peripheral nervous system are often investigated with neurons isolated from dorsal root ganglia (DRG), typically with one-time measurement techniques such as patch clamping. Here, we report the use of our multi-electrode array (MEA) platform for long-term noninvasive assessment of human DRG cell health and function. In this study, we acquired simultaneous optical and electrophysiological measurements from primary human DRG neurons upon chemical stimulation repeatedly through day in vitro (DIV) 23. Distinct chemical signatures were noted for the cellular responses evoked by each chemical stimulus. Additionally, the cell viability and function of the human DRG neurons were consistent through DIV 23. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on long-term measurements of the cell health and function of human DRG neurons on a MEA platform. Future generations will include higher electrode numbers in customized arrangements as well as integration with different tissue types on a single device. This platform will provide a valuable testing tool for both rodent and human cells, enabling a more comprehensive risk assessment for drug candidates and toxicants.

New insights into perineural invasion of pancreatic cancer: More than pain

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most malignant human tumors. Perineural invasion, whereby a cancer cell invades the perineural spaces surrounding nerves, is acknowledged as a gradual contributor to cancer aggressiveness. Furthermore, perineural invasion is considered one of the root causes of the recurrence and metastasis observed after pancreatic resection, and it is also an independent predictor of prognosis. Advanced research has demonstrated that the neural microenvironment is closely associated with perineural invasion in pancreatic cancer. Therapy targeting the molecular mechanism of perineural invasion may enable the durable clinical treatment of this formidable disease. This review provides an overview of the present status of perineural invasion, the relevant molecular mechanisms of perineural invasion, pain and hyperglycemia associated with perineural invasion in pancreatic cancer, and the targeted therapeutics based on these studies.

Mechanisms underlying clinical efficacy of Angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R) antagonist EMA401 in neuropathic pain: clinical tissue and in vitro studies

Background

The clinical efficacy of the Angiotensin II (AngII) receptor AT₂R antagonist EMA401, a novel peripherally-restricted analgesic, was reported recently in post-herpetic neuralgia. While previous studies have shown that AT₂R is expressed by nociceptors in human DRG (hDRG), and that EMA401 inhibits capsaicin responses in cultured hDRG neurons, the expression and levels of its endogenous ligands AngII and AngIII in clinical neuropathic pain tissues, and their signalling pathways, require investigation. We have immunostained AngII, AT₂R and the capsaicin receptor TRPV1 in control post-mortem and avulsion injured hDRG, control and injured human nerves, and in cultured hDRG neurons. AngII, AngIII, and Ang-(1-7) levels were quantified by ELISA. The in vitro effects of AngII, AT₂R agonist C21, and Nerve growth factor (NGF) were measured on neurite lengths; AngII, NGF and EMA401 effects on expression of p38 and p42/44 MAPK were measured using quantitative immunofluorescence, and on capsaicin responses using calcium imaging.

Results

AngII immunostaining was observed in approximately 75% of small/medium diameter neurons in control (n = 5) and avulsion injured (n = 8) hDRG, but not large neurons i.e. similar to TRPV1. AngII was co-localised with AT₂R and TRPV1 in hDRG and in vitro. AngII staining by image analysis showed no significant difference between control (n = 12) and injured (n = 13) human nerves. AngII levels by ELISA were also similar in control human nerves (4.09 ± 0.36 pmol/g, n = 31), injured nerves (3.99 ± 0.79 pmol/g, n = 7), and painful neuromas (3.43 ± 0.73 pmol/g, n = 12); AngIII and Ang-(1-7) levels were undetectable (<0.03 and 0.05 pmol/g respectively). Neurite lengths were significantly increased in the presence of NGF, AngII and C21 in cultured DRG neurons. AngII and, as expected, NGF significantly increased signal intensity of p38 and p42/44 MAPK, which was reversed by EMA401. AngII mediated sensitization of capsaicin responses was not observed in the presence of MAP kinase inhibitor PD98059, and the kinase inhibitor staurosporine.

Conclusion

The major AT₂R ligand in human peripheral nerves is AngII, and its levels are maintained in injured nerves. EMA401 may act on paracrine/autocrine mechanisms at peripheral nerve terminals, or intracrine mechanisms, to reduce neuropathic pain signalling in AngII/NGF/TRPV1-convergent pathways.

A novel selective and orally bioavailable Nav 1.8 channel blocker, PF-01247324, attenuates nociception and sensory neuron excitability

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

NaV 1.8 ion channels have been highlighted as important molecular targets for the design of low MW blockers for the treatment of chronic pain. Here, we describe the effects of PF-01247324, a new generation, selective, orally bioavailable Nav 1.8 channel blocker of novel chemotype.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The inhibition of Nav 1.8 channels by PF-01247324 was studied using in vitro patch-clamp electrophysiology and the oral bioavailability and antinociceptive effects demonstrated using in vivo rodent models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

KEY RESULTS

PF-01247324 inhibited native tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-R) currents in human dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons (IC50 : 331 nM) and in recombinantly expressed h Nav 1.8 channels (IC50 : 196 nM), with 50-fold selectivity over recombinantly expressed TTX-R hNav 1.5 channels (IC50 : ∼10 μM) and 65-100-fold selectivity over TTX-sensitive (TTX-S) channels (IC50 : ∼10-18 μM). Native TTX-R currents in small-diameter rodent DRG neurons were inhibited with an IC50 448 nM, and the block of both human recombinant Nav 1.8 channels and TTX-R from rat DRG neurons was both frequency and state dependent. In vitro current clamp showed that PF-01247324 reduced excitability in both rat and human DRG neurons and also altered the waveform of the action potential. In vivo experiments n rodents demonstrated efficacy in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain models.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using PF-01247324, we have confirmed a role for Nav 1.8 channels in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain. We have also demonstrated a key role for Nav 1.8 channels in action potential upstroke and repetitive firing of rat and human DRG neurons.

Prenatal nicotinic exposure augments cardiorespiratory responses to activation of bronchopulmonary C-fibers

Rat pups prenatally exposed to nicotine (PNE) present apneic (lethal ventilatory arrest) responses during severe hypoxia. To clarify whether these responses are of central origin, we tested PNE effects on ventilation and diaphragm electromyography (EMGdi) during hypoxia in conscious rat pups. PNE produced apnea (lethal ventilatory arrest) identical to EMGdi silencing during hypoxia, indicating a central origin of this apneic response. We further asked whether PNE would sensitize bronchopulmonary C-fibers (PCFs), a key player in generating central apnea, with increase of the density and transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) expression of C-fibers/neurons in the nodose/jugular (N/J) ganglia and neurotrophic factors in the airways and lungs. We compared 1) ventilatory and pulmonary C-neural responses to right atrial bolus injection of capsaicin (CAP, 0.5 μg/kg), 2) bronchial substance P-immunoreactive (SP-IR) fiber density, 3) gene and protein expressions of TRPV1 in the ganglia, and 4) nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and TrkA and TrkB genes in the ganglia between control and PNE pups. PNE markedly strengthened the PCF-mediated apneic response to CAP via increasing pulmonary C-neural sensitivity. PNE also enhanced bronchial SP-IR fiber density and N/J ganglia neural TRPV1 expression associated with increased gene expression of TrkA in the N/G ganglia and decreased NGF and BDNF in BALF. Our results suggest that PNE enhances PCF sensitivity likely through increasing PCF density and TRPV1 expression via upregulation of neural TrkA and downregulation of pulmonary BDNF, which may contribute to the PNE-promoted central apnea (lethal ventilatory arrest) during hypoxia.

Electrospun silk fibroin nanofibers promote Schwann cell adhesion, growth and proliferation

In this study, Schwann cells, at a density of 1 × 10(5) cells/well, were cultured on regenerated silk fibroin nanofibers (305 ± 84 nm) prepared using the electrospinning method. Schwann cells cultured on the silk fibroin nanofibers appeared more ordered, their processes extended further, and they formed more extensive and complex interconnections. In addition, the silk fibroin nanofibers had no impact on the proliferation of Schwann cells or on the secretion of ciliary neurotrophic factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor or nerve growth factor. These findings indicate that regenerated electrospun silk fibroin nanofibers can promote Schwann cell adhesion, growth and proliferation, and have excellent biocompatibility.

The exercise pressor reflex and peripheral artery disease

The exercise pressor reflex contributes to increases in cardiovascular and ventilatory function during exercise. These reflexive increases are caused by both mechanical stimulation and metabolic stimulation of group III and IV afferents with endings in contracting skeletal muscle. Patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD) have an augmented exercise pressor reflex. Recently, an animal model of PAD was established which allows further investigation of possible mechanisms involved in this augmented reflex. Earlier studies have identified ASIC3 channels, bradykinin receptors, P2X receptors, endoperoxide receptors, and thromboxane receptors as playing a role in evoking the exercise pressor reflex in healthy rats. This review focuses on recent studies using a rat model of PAD in order to determine possible mechanisms contributing to the exaggerated exercise pressor reflex seen in patients with this disease.

Phenylarsine oxide as a redox modulator of transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 channel function

Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) channels are capable of detecting and integrating noxious stimuli and play an important role in nociceptor activation and sensitization. It has been demonstrated that oxidizing agents are capable of positively modulating (sensitizing) the TRPV1 channel. The present study investigates the ability of the thiol-oxidizing agent phenylarsine oxide (PAO) to modulate TRPV1 currents under voltage-clamp conditions. We assessed the ability of PAO to modulate both proton- and capsaicin-activated currents mediated by recombinant human TRPV1 channels as well as native rat and human TRPV1 channels in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Experiments with other oxidizing and reducing agents having various membrane-permeating properties supported the intracellular oxidizing mechanism of PAO modulation. The PAO modulation of proton-activated currents was consistent across the cell types studied, with an increase in current across the proton concentrations studied. PAO modulation of the capsaicin-activated current in hTRPV1/Chinese hamster ovary cells consisted of potentiation of the current elicited with low capsaicin concentrations and inhibition of the current at higher concentrations. This same effect was seen with these recombinant cells in calcium imaging experiments and with native TRPV1 channels in rat DRG neurons. Contrary to this, currents in human DRG neurons were potentiated at all capsaicin concentrations tested after PAO treatment. These results could indicate important differences in the reduction-oxidation modulation of human TRPV1 channels in a native cellular environment.

Human sensory neurons: Membrane properties and sensitization by inflammatory mediators

Biological differences in sensory processing between human and model organisms may present significant obstacles to translational approaches in treating chronic pain. To better understand the physiology of human sensory neurons, we performed whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from 141 human dorsal root ganglion (hDRG) neurons from 5 young adult donors without chronic pain. Nearly all small-diameter hDRG neurons (<50 μm) displayed an inflection on the descending slope of the action potential, a defining feature of rodent nociceptive neurons. A high proportion of hDRG neurons were responsive to the algogens allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) and ATP, as well as the pruritogens histamine and chloroquine. We show that a subset of hDRG neurons responded to the inflammatory compounds bradykinin and prostaglandin E2 with action potential discharge and show evidence of sensitization including lower rheobase. Compared to electrically evoked action potentials, chemically induced action potentials were triggered from less depolarized thresholds and showed distinct afterhyperpolarization kinetics. These data indicate that most small/medium hDRG neurons can be classified as nociceptors, that they respond directly to compounds that produce pain and itch, and that they can be activated and sensitized by inflammatory mediators. The use of hDRG neurons as preclinical vehicles for target validation is discussed.

Activation of CB1 inhibits NGF-induced sensitization of TRPV1 in adult mouse afferent neurons

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1)-containing afferent neurons convey nociceptive signals and play an essential role in pain sensation. Exposure to nerve growth factor (NGF) rapidly increases TRPV1 activity (sensitization). In the present study, we investigated whether treatment with the selective cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) agonist arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA) affects NGF-induced sensitization of TRPV1 in adult mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) afferent neurons. We found that CB1, NGF receptor tyrosine kinase A (trkA), and TRPV1 are present in cultured adult mouse small- to medium-sized afferent neurons and treatment with NGF (100ng/ml) for 30 min significantly increased the number of neurons that responded to capsaicin (as indicated by increased intracellular Ca(2 +) concentration). Pretreatment with the CB1 agonist ACEA (10nM) inhibited the NGF-induced response, and this effect of ACEA was reversed by a selective CB1 antagonist. Further, pretreatment with ACEA inhibited NGF-induced phosphorylation of AKT. Blocking PI3 kinase activity also attenuated the NGF-induced increase in the number of neurons that responded to capsaicin. Our results indicate that the analgesic effect of CB1 activation may in part be due to inhibition of NGF-induced sensitization of TRPV1 and also that the effect of CB1 activation is at least partly mediated by attenuation of NGF-induced increased PI3 signaling.

Nerve growth factor decreases in sympathetic and sensory nerves of rats with chronic heart failure

Nerve growth factor (NGF) plays a critical role in the maintenance and survival of both sympathetic and sensory nerves. Also, NGF can regulate receptor expression and neuronal activity in the sympathetic and sensory neurons. Abnormalities in NGF regulation are observed in patients and animals with heart failure (HF). Nevertheless, the effects of chronic HF on the levels of NGF within the sympathetic and sensory nerves are not known. Thus, the ELISA method was used to assess the levels of NGF in the stellate ganglion (SG) and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons of control rats and rats with chronic HF induced by myocardial infarction. Our data show for the first time that the levels of NGF were significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in the SG and DRG neurons 6-20 weeks after ligation of the coronary artery. In addition, a close relation was observed between the NGF levels and the left ventricular function. In conclusion, chronic HF impairs the expression of NGF in the sympathetic and sensory nerves. Given that sensory afferent nerves are engaged in the sympathetic nervous responses to somatic stimulation (i.e. muscle activity during exercise) via a reflex mechanism, our data indicate that NGF is likely responsible for the development of muscle reflex-mediated abnormal sympathetic responsiveness observed in chronic HF.

Calcium-permeable ion channels in pain signaling

The detection and processing of painful stimuli in afferent sensory neurons is critically dependent on a wide range of different types of voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels, including sodium, calcium, and TRP channels, to name a few. The functions of these channels include the detection of mechanical and chemical insults, the generation of action potentials and regulation of neuronal firing patterns, the initiation of neurotransmitter release at dorsal horn synapses, and the ensuing activation of spinal cord neurons that project to pain centers in the brain. Long-term changes in ion channel expression and function are thought to contribute to chronic pain states. Many of the channels involved in the afferent pain pathway are permeable to calcium ions, suggesting a role in cell signaling beyond the mere generation of electrical activity. In this article, we provide a broad overview of different calcium-permeable ion channels in the afferent pain pathway and their role in pain pathophysiology.

The role of nerve growth factor in neuropathic pain inhibition produced by resiniferatoxin treatment in the dorsal root ganglia

BACKGROUND

Resiniferatoxin (RTX), an excitotoxic agonist for vanilloid receptor 1, is a promising candidate for intractable pain treatment.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the effects of RTX, applied to dorsal root ganglia (DRG) at high doses (1200 ng), in sensory-motor function and nerve growth factor (NGF) alterations in a photochemical sciatic nerve injury rat model.

METHODS

Following RTX injection into the L3-6 DRG at high doses and behavioral evaluation, the rats were sacrificed and the DRG were tested by immunohistochemistry and mRNA analysis for NGF and its' receptors, tyrosine kinase A (TrkA) and p75. The correlation between neuropathic pain and NGF, TrkA, and p75 expression was analyzed.

RESULTS

The treated rats had preserved touch, cold, pain, and high-heat sensations, and exhibited hypoalgesia to low-heat stimulation. After RTX treatment, TrkA and p75 altered their expressions from one neuronal type to another in the DRG. NGF and p75 expression changed from the small-size neurons in neuropathic rat DRG to the large- and medium-size neurons in non-neuropathic and RTX-treated animals, concomitantly with neuropathic pain suppression. TrkA was expressed in the small-size neurons in neuropathic rat DRG, and was drastically reduced in all size neurons after RTX treatment. NGF, TrkA, and p75 mRNA expression supported these phenotypic changes in the DRG.

CONCLUSION

The pathway of NGF-TrkA expressed in the small-size neurons, associated with neuropathic pain, was shifted to the NGF-p75 pathway expressed in the large-size neurons after RTX treatment, in association with neuropathic pain inhibition. These findings may play an important role in clinical trial designs.

Thermally activated TRPV3 channels

TRPV3 is a temperature-sensitive transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channel. The TRPV3 protein functions as a Ca(2+)-permeable nonselective cation channel with six transmembrane domains forming a tetrameric complex. TRPV3 is known to be activated by warm temperatures, synthetic small-molecule chemicals, and natural compounds from plants. Its function is regulated by a variety of physiological factors including extracellular divalent cations and acidic pH, intracellular adenosine triphosphate, membrane voltage, and arachidonic acid. TRPV3 shows a broad expression pattern in both neuronal and non-neuronal tissues including epidermal keratinocytes, epithelial cells in the gut, endothelial cells in blood vessels, and neurons in dorsal root ganglia and CNS. TRPV3 null mice exhibit abnormal hair morphogenesis and compromised skin barrier function. Recent advances suggest that TRPV3 may play critical roles in inflammatory skin disorders, itch, and pain sensation. Thus, identification of selective TRPV3 activators and inhibitors could potentially lead to beneficial pharmacological interventions in several diseases. The intent of this review is to summarize our current knowledge of the tissue expression, structure, function, and mechanisms of activation of TRPV3.

Angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2 R) localization and antagonist-mediated inhibition of capsaicin responses and neurite outgrowth in human and rat sensory neurons

BACKGROUND

The angiotensin II (AngII) receptor subtype 2 (AT2 R) is expressed in sensory neurons and may play a role in nociception and neuronal regeneration.

METHODS

We used immunostaining with characterized antibodies to study the localization of AT2 R in cultured human and rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and a range of human tissues. The effects of AngII and AT2 R antagonist EMA401 on capsaicin responses in cultured human and rat (DRG) neurons were measured with calcium imaging, on neurite length and density with Gap43 immunostaining, and on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) expression using immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

AT2 R expression was localized in small-/medium-sized cultured neurons of human and rat DRG. Treatment with the AT2 R antagonist EMA401 resulted in dose-related functional inhibition of capsaicin responses (IC50  = 10 nmol/L), which was reversed by 8-bromo-cAMP, and reduced neurite length and density; AngII treatment significantly enhanced capsaicin responses, cAMP levels and neurite outgrowth. The AT1 R antagonist losartan had no effect on capsaicin responses. AT2 R was localized in sensory neurons of human DRG, and nerve fibres in peripheral nerves, skin, urinary bladder and bowel. A majority sub-population (60%) of small-/medium-diameter neuronal cells were immunopositive in both control post-mortem and avulsion-injured human DRG; some very small neurons appeared to be intensely immunoreactive, with TRPV1 co-localization. While AT2 R levels were reduced in human limb peripheral nerve segments proximal to injury, they were preserved in painful neuromas.

CONCLUSIONS

AT2 R antagonists could be particularly useful in the treatment of chronic pain and hypersensitivity associated with abnormal nerve sprouting.

Modafinil inhibits K(Ca)3.1 currents and muscle contraction via a cAMP-dependent mechanism

Modafinil has been used as a psychostimulant for the treatment of narcolepsy. However, its primary mechanism of action remains elusive. Therefore, we examined the effects of modafinil on K(Ca)3.1 channels and vascular smooth muscle contraction. K(Ca)3.1 currents and channel activity were measured using a voltage-clamp technique and inside-out patches in mouse embryonic fibroblast cell line, NIH-3T3 fibroblasts. Intracellular adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) concentration was measured, and the phosphorylation of K(Ca)3.1 channel protein was examined using western blotting in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts and/or primary cultured mouse aortic smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Muscle contractions were recorded from mouse aorta and rat pulmonary artery by using a myograph developed in-house. Modafinil was found to inhibit K(Ca)3.1 currents in a concentration-dependent manner, and the half-maximal inhibition (IC(50)) of modafinil for the current inhibition was 6.8 ± 0.7 nM. The protein kinase A (PKA) activator forskolin also inhibited K(Ca)3.1 currents. The inhibitory effects of modafinil and forskolin on K(Ca)3.1 currents were blocked by the PKA inhibitors PKI(14-22) or H-89. In addition, modafinil relaxed blood vessels (mouse aorta and rat pulmonary artery) in a concentration-dependent manner. Modafinil increased cAMP concentrations in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts or primary cultured mouse aortic SMCs and phosphorylated K(Ca)3.1 channel protein in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts. However, open probability and single-channel current amplitudes of K(Ca)3.1 channels were not changed by modafinil. From these results, we conclude that modafinil inhibits K(Ca)3.1 channels and vascular smooth muscle contraction by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation, suggesting that modafinil can be used as a cAMP-dependent K(Ca)3.1 channel blocker and vasodilator.

Culturing and differentiating human mesenchymal stem cells for biocompatible scaffolds in regenerative medicine

Mesenchymal stem cells from a variety of sites are a natural resource that using appropriate skills can be cultured in the laboratory, in scaffolds, to provide differentiated-cell replacement tissues, for clinical application. To perform such work with human cells, strict ethical integrity must be observed at all stages. Adipocytes, osteocytes and chrondrocytes are amongst the most desirable end-point cells. Hydrolytic degradable scaffolds allow implanted cells to synthesise their own extracellular matrix in situ after implantation, degeneration of the foreign scaffold to temporally match creation of the new innate one. For preliminary in vitro stem cell differentiation protocols, initial investigation is commonly performed with stem cells in commercially available porous collagen sponges or cell-free small intestinal submucosa. Differentiation of stem cells to a specific phenotype is achieved by culturing them in apposite culture media under precise conditions. Once the cells have differentiated, they are checked and characterised in a wide variety of systems. This chapter describes differentiation media for adipocytes, osteocytes, chondrocytes, myocytes and neural precursors and methods of observing their characteristics by microscopy using phase contrast microscopy, standard light microscopy and electron microscopy with tinctorial, immunocytochemical and electron dense stains, respectively. Cell sorting techniques are not dealt with here. Immunocytochemistry/microscopy staining for specific differentiated-cell antigens is an invaluable procedure, and the range of commercially available antibodies is wide. Precautions need to be considered for using actively proliferating cells in vivo, so that implanted cells remain controlled by the body's molecular signals and avoid development of malignancy.

Increased levels of SV2A botulinum neurotoxin receptor in clinical sensory disorders and functional effects of botulinum toxins A and E in cultured human sensory neurons

Background

There is increasing evidence that botulinum neurotoxin A may affect sensory nociceptor fibers, but the expression of its receptors in clinical pain states, and its effects in human sensory neurons, are largely unknown.

Methods

We studied synaptic vesicle protein subtype SV2A, a receptor for botulinum neurotoxin A, by immunostaining in a range of clinical tissues, including human dorsal root ganglion sensory neurons, peripheral nerves, the urinary bladder, and the colon. We also determined the effects of botulinum neurotoxins A and E on localization of the capsaicin receptor, TRPV1, and functional sensitivity to capsaicin stimuli in cultured human dorsal root ganglion neurons.

Results

Image analysis showed that SV2A immunoreactive nerve fibers were increased in injured nerves proximal to the injury (P = 0.002), and in painful neuromas (P = 0.0027); the ratio of percentage area SV2A to neurofilaments (a structural marker) was increased proximal to injury (P = 0.0022) and in neuromas (P = 0.0001), indicating increased SV2A levels in injured nerve fibers. In the urinary bladder, SV2A nerve fibers were found in detrusor muscle and associated with blood vessels, with a significant increase in idiopathic detrusor over-activity (P = 0.002) and painful bladder syndrome (P = 0.0087). Colon biopsies showed numerous SV2A-positive nerve fibers, which were increased in quiescent inflammatory bowel disease with abdominal pain (P = 0.023), but not in inflammatory bowel disease without abdominal pain (P = 0.77) or in irritable bowel syndrome (P = 0.13). In vitro studies of botulinum neurotoxin A-treated and botulinum neurotoxin E-treated cultured human sensory neurons showed accumulation of cytoplasmic vesicles, neurite loss, and reduced immunofluorescence for the heat and capsaicin receptor, TRPV1. Functional effects included dose-related inhibition of capsaicin responses on calcium imaging after acute treatment with botulinum neurotoxins A and E.

Conclusion

Differential levels of SV2A protein expression in clinical disorders may identify potential new targets for botulinum neurotoxin therapy. In vitro studies indicate that treatment with botulinum neurotoxins A and E may affect receptor expression and nociceptor function in sensory neurons.

Perineural invasion and associated pain in pancreatic cancer

Perineural invasion (PNI) is a prominent characteristic of pancreatic cancer. PNI is a process whereby cancer cells invade the surrounding nerves, thus providing an alternative route for metastatic spread and pain generation. PNI is thought to be an indicator of aggressive tumour behaviour and has been shown to correlate with poor prognosis of patients with pancreatic cancer. Recent studies demonstrated that some signalling molecules and pathways that are involved in PNI are also involved in pain generation. Targeting these signalling pathways has shown some promise in alleviating pain and reducing PNI, which could potentially improve treatment outcomes for patients with pancreatic cancer.