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The interplay between domain-general and domain-specific mechanisms during the time-course of verbal associative learning: An event-related potential study. Neuroimage 2021; 242:118443. [PMID: 34352392 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans continuously learn new information. Here, we examined the temporal brain dynamics of explicit verbal associative learning between unfamiliar items. In the first experiment, 25 adults learned object-pseudoword associations during a 5-day training program allowing us to track the N400 dynamics across learning blocks within and across days. Successful learning was accompanied by an initial frontal N400 that decreased in amplitude across blocks during the first day and shifted to parietal sites during the last training day. In Experiment 2, we replicated our findings with 38 new participants randomly assigned to a consistent learning or an inconsistent learning group. The N400 amplitude modulations that we found, both within and between learning sessions, are taken to reflect the emergence of novel lexical traces even when learning concerns items for which no semantic information is provided. The shift in N400 topography suggests that different N400 neural generators may contribute to specific word learning steps through a balance between domain-general and language-specific mechanisms.
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2
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Marques PM, Mattiazzi ÂL, Ferreira L, Oppitz SJ, Biaggio EPV. The Effect of Learning English on P300 in Children. Int Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2021; 25:e284-e288. [PMID: 33968234 PMCID: PMC8096498 DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1710304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Learning a second language is an essential task in today's world, and is experienced by many children. The cognitive auditory-evoked potential (P300) is related to cognitive activity, attention and concentration, enabling the investigation of the effect of a second language on the central auditory pathway. Objective To analyze the effects of learning English on P300 latency and amplitude in children and to correlate them with age, time of exposure to English, and time in class. Method An observational, descriptive, cross-sectional and quantitative study, in which 33 children, aged between 5 and 9 years and 11 months, of both genders participated, 14 of them in the process of learning English (study group) and 19 without this experience (control group). All subjects had their P300 evaluated using the Intelligent Hearing Systems (IHS, Miami, FL, US) Smart EP equipment. A total of 300 binaural stimuli were used in 75 dBnHL, as well as 240 frequent and 60 rare stimuli, using the pairs /ba/ and /di/ respectively. Results There was a statistically significant difference regarding P300 latency between the groups, and children exposed to English classes had lower latency in this component. No statistical difference was found between P300 amplitudes. No correlation was observed regarding age, time of exposure to English, time in class, and electrophysiological responses. Conclusion The Children exposed to English classes had the most stimulating auditory pathway, because their P300 had lower latency, being a resource for the speech therapy clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ângela Leusin Mattiazzi
- Post-graduate Program in Human Communication Disorders, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Laís Ferreira
- Post-graduate Program in Human Communication Disorders, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Sheila Jacques Oppitz
- Post-graduate Program in Human Communication Disorders, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Eliara Pinto Vieira Biaggio
- Post-graduate Program in Human Communication Disorders, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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3
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Bermúdez-Margaretto B, Shtyrov Y, Beltrán D, Cuetos F, Domínguez A. Rapid acquisition of novel written word-forms: ERP evidence. Behav Brain Funct 2020; 16:11. [PMID: 33267883 PMCID: PMC7713216 DOI: 10.1186/s12993-020-00173-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Novel word acquisition is generally believed to be a rapid process, essential for ensuring a flexible and efficient communication system; at least in spoken language, learners are able to construct memory traces for new linguistic stimuli after just a few exposures. However, such rapid word learning has not been systematically found in visual domain, with different confounding factors obscuring the orthographic learning of novel words. This study explored the changes in human brain activity occurring online, during a brief training with novel written word-forms using a silent reading task Results Single-trial, cluster-based random permutation analysis revealed that training caused an extremely fast (after just one repetition) and stable facilitation in novel word processing, reflected in the modulation of P200 and N400 components, possibly indicating rapid dynamics at early and late stages of the lexical processing. Furthermore, neural source estimation of these effects revealed the recruitment of brain areas involved in orthographic and lexico-semantic processing, respectively. Conclusions These results suggest the formation of neural memory traces for novel written word-forms after a minimal exposure to them even in the absence of a semantic reference, resembling the rapid learning processes known to occur in spoken language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Bermúdez-Margaretto
- Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - Yury Shtyrov
- Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation.,Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - David Beltrán
- Instituto Universitario de Neurociencia (IUNE) and Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Fernando Cuetos
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Alberto Domínguez
- Instituto Universitario de Neurociencia (IUNE) and Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
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4
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Tschuemperlin RM, Stein M, Batschelet HM, Moggi F, Soravia LM. Learning to resist the urge: a double-blind, randomized controlled trial investigating alcohol-specific inhibition training in abstinent patients with alcohol use disorder. Trials 2019; 20:402. [PMID: 31277683 PMCID: PMC6612135 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-019-3505-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alcohol use disorder (AUD) leads to a significant individual and societal burden. To achieve higher therapy success rates, therapeutic interventions still need to be improved. Most current neuroscientific conceptualizations of AUD focus on the imbalance between an enhanced automatic reaction to alcohol cues and impaired inhibition. Complementary to traditional relapse prevention strategies, novel computerized training interventions aim to directly alter these processes. This study tests a computerized alcohol-specific inhibition training in a large clinical sample and investigates its effects on behavioral, experimental and neurophysiological outcomes. It also analyzes whether variations in inhibition difficulty and/or endogenous cortisol levels during training impact these effects. Methods This is a double-blind, randomized controlled trial (RCT) with 246 inpatients with AUD participating. After baseline assessment, participants are randomly assigned to one of three computerized Go-NoGo-based inhibition training interventions (two alcohol-specific versions with different Go/NoGo ratios, or neutral control training) and one of two intervention times (morning/afternoon), resulting in six study arms. All patients perform six training sessions within 2 weeks. Endogenous cortisol is measured in 80 patients before and after the first training session. Inhibitory control and implicit associations towards alcohol are assessed pre and post training, at which point electroencephalography (EEG) is additionally measured in 60 patients. Patients’ alcohol consumption and relevant psychological constructs (e.g., craving, self-efficacy, treatment motivation) are measured at discharge and at 3-, 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Fifty healthy participants are assessed (20 with EEG) at one time point as a healthy control group. Discussion This study investigates the effects of a computerized, alcohol-specific inhibition training for the first time in patients with AUD. Results should give insight into the effectiveness of this potential add-on to standard AUD treatment, including proximal and distal measures and effects on behavioral, experimental and neurophysiological measures. Information about working mechanisms and potential optimizations of this training are gathered through variations regarding difficulty of inhibition training and training time. This study may thus contribute to a deepened understanding of AUD and the improvement of its evidence-based treatment. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov, ID: NCT02968537. Registered on 18 November 2016. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13063-019-3505-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaela M Tschuemperlin
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Center for Treatment of Addictive Disorders, Clinic Suedhang, Kirchlindach, Switzerland
| | - Maria Stein
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland. .,Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Hallie M Batschelet
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Franz Moggi
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Leila M Soravia
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Center for Treatment of Addictive Disorders, Clinic Suedhang, Kirchlindach, Switzerland
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5
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Habermann M, Weusmann D, Stein M, Koenig T. A Student's Guide to Randomization Statistics for Multichannel Event-Related Potentials Using Ragu. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:355. [PMID: 29973861 PMCID: PMC6020783 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we present a multivariate approach to analyze multi-channel event-related potential (ERP) data using randomization statistics1. The MATLAB-based open source toolbox Randomization Graphical User interface (Ragu) provides, among other methods, a test for topographic consistency, a topographic analysis of variance, t-mapping and microstate analyses. Up to two within-subject factors and one between-subject factor, each with an open number of levels, can be defined and analyzed in Ragu. Ragu analyses include all sensor signals and no a-priori models have to be applied during the analyses. Additionally, periods of significant effects can be controlled for multiple testing using global overall statistics over time. Here, we introduce the different alternatives to apply Ragu, based on a step by step analysis of an example study. This example study examined the neural activity in response to semantic unexpected sentence endings in exchange students at the beginning of their stay and after staying in a foreign-language country for 5 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Habermann
- Translational Research Center, Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Dorothea Weusmann
- Translational Research Center, Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Maria Stein
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Koenig
- Translational Research Center, Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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6
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Berisha V, Gilton D, Baxter LC, Corman SR, Blais C, Brewer G, Ruston S, Hunter Ball B, Wingert KM, Peter B, Rogalsky C. Structural neural predictors of Farsi-English bilingualism. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2018; 180-182:42-49. [PMID: 29723828 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The neurobiology of bilingualism is hotly debated. The present study examines whether normalized cortical measurements can be used to reliably classify monolinguals versus bilinguals in a structural MRI dataset of Farsi-English bilinguals and English monolinguals. A decision tree classifier classified bilinguals with an average correct classification rate of 85%, and monolinguals with a rate of 71.4%. The most relevant regions for classification were the right supramarginal gyrus, left inferior temporal gyrus and left inferior frontal gyrus. Larger studies with carefully matched monolingual and bilingual samples are needed to confirm that features of these regions can reliably categorize monolingual and bilingual brains. Nonetheless, the present findings suggest that a single structural MRI scan, analyzed with measures readily available using default procedures in a free open-access software (Freesurfer), can be used to reliably predict an individual's language experience using a decision tree classifier, and that Farsi-English bilingualism implicates regions identified in previous group-level studies of bilingualism in other languages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Visar Berisha
- Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; School of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Davis Gilton
- School of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Leslie C Baxter
- Barrow Neurological Institute and St. Joseph's Medical Center and Hospital, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA
| | - Steven R Corman
- The Hugh Downs School of Human Communication, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | - Chris Blais
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Gene Brewer
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Scott Ruston
- The Hugh Downs School of Human Communication, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | - B Hunter Ball
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Kimberly M Wingert
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Beate Peter
- Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO 63101, USA
| | - Corianne Rogalsky
- Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
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7
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Stein M, Fey W, Koenig T, Oehy J, Moggi F. Context-Specific Inhibition is Related to Craving in Alcohol Use Disorders: A Dangerous Imbalance. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2017; 42:69-80. [DOI: 10.1111/acer.13532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Stein
- University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - Werner Fey
- University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - Thomas Koenig
- University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - Jacqueline Oehy
- University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - Franz Moggi
- University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
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8
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Skrandies W, Shinoda H. Topographical Subcomponents of Electrical Brain Activity Allow to Identify Semantic Learning. Brain Topogr 2017; 30:303-311. [DOI: 10.1007/s10548-017-0556-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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9
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Neural Processes Associated with Vocabulary and Vowel-Length Differences in a Dialect: An ERP Study in Pre-literate Children. Brain Topogr 2017; 30:610-628. [DOI: 10.1007/s10548-017-0562-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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10
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Temporal dynamics of early visual word processing – Early versus late N1 sensitivity in children and adults. Neuropsychologia 2016; 91:509-518. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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11
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Language effects in second-language learners: A longitudinal electrophysiological study of spanish classroom learning. Brain Res 2016; 1646:44-52. [PMID: 27233808 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
How do the neural mechanisms involved in word recognition evolve over the course of word learning in adult learners of a new second language? The current study sought to closely track language effects, which are differences in electrophysiological indices of word processing between one's native and second languages, in beginning university learners over the course of a single semester of learning. Monolingual L1 English-speakers enrolled in introductory Spanish were first trained on a list of 228 Spanish words chosen from the vocabulary to be learned in class. Behavioral data from the training session and the following experimental sessions spaced over the course of the semester showed expected learning effects. In the three laboratory sessions participants read words in three lists (English, Spanish and mixed) while performing a go/no-go lexical decision task in which event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. As observed in previous studies there were ERP language effects with larger N400s to native than second language words. Importantly, this difference declined over the course of L2 learning with N400 amplitude increasing for new second language words. These results suggest that even over a single semester of learning that new second language words are rapidly incorporated into the word recognition system and begin to take on lexical and semantic properties similar to native language words. Moreover, the results suggest that electrophysiological measures can be used as sensitive measures for tracking the acquisition of new linguistic knowledge.
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12
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Grant AM, Fang SY, Li P. Second language lexical development and cognitive control: A longitudinal fMRI study. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2015; 144:35-47. [PMID: 25899988 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2014] [Revised: 03/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we report a longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study that tested contrasting predictions about the time course of cognitive control in second language (L2) acquisition. We examined the neural correlates of lexical processing in L2 learners twice over the course of one academic year. Specifically, while in the scanner, participants were asked to judge the language membership of unambiguous first and second language words, as well as interlingual homographs. Our ROI and connectivity analyses reveal that with increased exposure to the L2, overall activation in control areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex decrease while connectivity with semantic processing regions such as the middle temporal gyrus increase. These results suggest that cognitive control is more important initially in L2 acquisition, and have significant implications for understanding developmental and neurocognitive models of second language lexical processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Grant
- Department of Psychology and Center for Brain, Behavior, and Cognition, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Shin-Yi Fang
- Department of Psychology and Center for Brain, Behavior, and Cognition, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Ping Li
- Department of Psychology and Center for Brain, Behavior, and Cognition, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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13
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Stein M, Winkler C, Kaiser A, Dierks T. Structural brain changes related to bilingualism: does immersion make a difference? Front Psychol 2014; 5:1116. [PMID: 25324816 PMCID: PMC4183087 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the field of neuroscientific research on second language learning, considerable attention has been devoted to functional and recently also structural changes related to second language acquisition. The present literature review summarizes studies that investigated structural changes related to bilingualism. Furthermore, as recent evidence has suggested that native-like exposure to a second language (i.e., a naturalistic learning setting or immersion) considerably impacts second language learning, all findings are reflected with respect to the learning environment. Aggregating the existing evidence, we conclude that structural changes in left inferior frontal and inferior parietal regions have been observed in studies on cortical gray matter changes, while the anterior parts of the corpus callosum have been repeatedly found to reflect bilingualism in studies on white matter (WM) connectivity. Regarding the learning environment, no cortical alterations can be attributed specifically to naturalistic or classroom learning. With regard to WM changes, one might tentatively propose that changes in IFOF and SLF are possibly more prominently observed in studies investigating bilinguals with a naturalistic learning experience. However, future studies are needed to replicate and strengthen the existing evidence and to directly test the impact of naturalistic exposure on structural brain plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Stein
- Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland ; Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Cognition, Learning and Memory, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
| | - Carmen Winkler
- Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anelis Kaiser
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland ; Department of Social Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Dierks
- Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Cognition, Learning and Memory, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
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Repeated Exposure to “meaningless” Pseudowords Modulates LPC, but Not N(FN)400. Brain Topogr 2014; 28:838-51. [DOI: 10.1007/s10548-014-0403-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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15
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Yum YN, Midgley KJ, Holcomb PJ, Grainger J. An ERP study on initial second language vocabulary learning. Psychophysiology 2014; 51:364-73. [PMID: 24660886 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the very initial phases of orthographic and semantic acquisition in monolingual native English speakers learning Chinese words under controlled laboratory conditions. Participants engaged in 10 sessions of vocabulary learning, four of which were used to obtain ERPs. Performance in behavioral tests improved over sessions, and these data were used to define fast and slow learners. Most important is that ERPs in the two groups of learners revealed qualitatively distinct learning patterns. Only fast learners showed a left-lateralized increase in N170 amplitude with training. Furthermore, only fast learners showed an increased N400 amplitude with training, with a distinct anterior distribution. Slow learners, on the other hand, showed a posterior positive effect, with increasingly positive-going waveforms in occipital sites as training progressed. Possible mechanisms underlying these qualitative differences are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen Na Yum
- Psychology Department, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
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16
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Jost LB, Eberhard-Moscicka AK, Frisch C, Dellwo V, Maurer U. Integration of Spoken and Written Words in Beginning Readers: A Topographic ERP Study. Brain Topogr 2013; 27:786-800. [DOI: 10.1007/s10548-013-0336-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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17
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Basso G, Magon S, Reggiani F, Capasso R, Monittola G, Yang FJ, Miceli G. Distinguishable neurofunctional effects of task practice and item practice in picture naming: a BOLD fMRI study in healthy subjects. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2013; 126:302-313. [PMID: 23933470 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2013.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Practice of language tasks results in improved performance and BOLD signal changes. We distinguish changes correlated with repeated exposure to a picture naming task, from changes associated with naming specific items trained during practice. Task practice affected trained and untrained items, yielding left-sided BOLD deactivations in extrastriate, prefrontal and superior temporal areas (consistent with their putative role in perceptual priming, articulatory planning and phonological lexical retrieval, respectively). Item practice effects were restricted to trained words. There was deactivation in left posterior fusiform (supporting its role in accessing structural object representations), anterior cingulate and left insular/inferior frontal cortices (consistent with their role in processing low-frequency words). Central precuneus and posterior cingulate were hyperactivated (consistent with their putative role in episodic memory for trained items, probably due to functional connections with language areas). In healthy subjects, naming practice modifies stored linguistic representations, but mostly affects ease of access to trained words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianpaolo Basso
- DiPSCo (Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences), Università di Trento, Rovereto, TN, Italy
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18
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A Tutorial on Data-Driven Methods for Statistically Assessing ERP Topographies. Brain Topogr 2013; 27:72-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s10548-013-0310-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Cao F, Tao R, Liu L, Perfetti CA, Booth JR. High proficiency in a second language is characterized by greater involvement of the first language network: evidence from Chinese learners of English. J Cogn Neurosci 2013; 25:1649-63. [PMID: 23654223 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The assimilation hypothesis argues that second language learning recruits the brain network for processing the native language, whereas the accommodation hypothesis argues that learning a second language recruits brain structures not involved in native language processing. This study tested these hypotheses by examining brain activation of a group of native Chinese speakers, who were late bilinguals with varying levels of proficiency in English, when they performed a rhyming judgment to visually presented English word pairs (CE group) during fMRI. Assimilation was examined by comparing the CE group to native Chinese speakers performing the rhyming task in Chinese (CC group), and accommodation was examined by comparing the CE group to native English speakers performing the rhyming task in English (EE group). The CE group was very similar in activation to the CC group, supporting the assimilation hypothesis. Additional support for the assimilation hypothesis was the finding that higher proficiency in the CE group was related to increased activation in the Chinese network (as defined by the CC > EE), including the left middle frontal gyrus, the right inferior parietal lobule, and the right precuneus, and decreased activation in the English network (as defined by the EE > CC), including the left inferior frontal gyrus and the left inferior temporal gyrus. Although most of the results support assimilation, there was some evidence for accommodation as the CE group showed less activation in the Chinese network including the right middle occipital gyrus, which has been argued to be involved in holistic visuospatial processing of Chinese characters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Cao
- Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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Borovsky A, Kutas M, Elman JL. Getting it right: word learning across the hemispheres. Neuropsychologia 2013; 51:825-37. [PMID: 23416731 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Revised: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The brain is able to acquire information about an unknown word's meaning from a highly constraining sentence context with minimal exposure. In this study, we investigate the potential contributions of the cerebral hemispheres to this ability. Undergraduates first read weakly or strongly constraining sentences completed by known or unknown (novel) words. Subsequently, their knowledge of the previously exposed words was assessed via a lexical decision task in which each word served as visual primes for lateralized target words that varied in their semantic relationship to the primes (unrelated, identical or synonymous). As expected, smaller N400 amplitudes were seen for target words preceded by identical (vs. unrelated) known word primes, regardless of visual field of presentation. When Unknown words served as primes, N400 reductions to synonymous target words were observed only if the prime had appeared under High sentential constraint; targets appearing in the LVF/RH elicited a small N400 effect and modulation of a subsequent late positivity whereas those in the RVF/LH elicited modulation on the late positivity only. Unknown words initially seen in Low constraint contexts showed priming effects only in a late positivity and only in the RVF/LH. Strength of contextual constraint clearly seems to impact the hemispheres' rapid acquisition of novel word meanings. N400 modulation for novel words under strong contextual constraint in the LVH/RH suggests that fast-mapped lexical representations may initially activate meanings that are weakly, distantly, associatively or thematically-related. More extensive and bilateral semantic processing seems to occur at longer processing latencies (post N400).
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Affiliation(s)
- Arielle Borovsky
- Center for Research in Language, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0526, USA.
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21
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Borovsky A, Elman JL, Kutas M. Once is Enough: N400 Indexes Semantic Integration of Novel Word Meanings from a Single Exposure in Context. LANGUAGE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 2012; 8:278-302. [PMID: 23125559 PMCID: PMC3484686 DOI: 10.1080/15475441.2011.614893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the impact of contextual constraint on the integration of novel word meanings into semantic memory. Adults read strongly or weakly constraining sentences ending in known or unknown (novel) words as scalp-recorded electrical brain activity was recorded. Word knowledge was assessed via a lexical decision task in which recently seen known and unknown word sentence endings served as primes for semantically related, unrelated, and synonym/identical target words. As expected, N400 amplitudes to target words preceded by known word primes were reduced by prime-target relatedness. Critically, N400 amplitudes to targets preceded by novel primes also varied with prime-target relatedness, but only when they had initially appeared in highly constraining sentences. This demonstrates for the first time that fast-mapped word representations can develop strong associations with semantically related word meanings and reveals a rapid neural process that can integrate information about word meanings into the mental lexicon of young adults.
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22
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Neuronal effects following working memory training. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2011; 2 Suppl 1:S167-79. [PMID: 22682905 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2011] [Revised: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is accumulating evidence that training working memory (WM) leads to beneficial effects in tasks that were not trained, but the mechanisms underlying this transfer remain elusive. Brain imaging can be a valuable method to gain insights into such mechanisms. Here, we discuss the impact of cognitive training on neural correlates with an emphasis on studies that implemented a WM intervention. We focus on changes in activation patterns, changes in resting state connectivity, changes in brain structure, and changes in the dopaminergic system. Our analysis of the existing literature reveals that there is currently no clear pattern of results that would single out a specific neural mechanism underlying training and transfer. We conclude that although brain imaging has provided us with information about the mechanisms of WM training, more research is needed to understand its neural impact.
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Ragu: a free tool for the analysis of EEG and MEG event-related scalp field data using global randomization statistics. COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE 2011; 2011:938925. [PMID: 21403863 PMCID: PMC3049349 DOI: 10.1155/2011/938925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2010] [Revised: 12/07/2010] [Accepted: 12/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We present a program (Ragu; Randomization Graphical User interface) for statistical analyses of multichannel event-related EEG and MEG experiments.
Based on measures of scalp field differences including all sensors, and using powerful, assumption-free randomization statistics, the program yields robust, physiologically meaningful conclusions based on the entire, untransformed, and unbiased set of measurements.
Ragu accommodates up to two within-subject factors and one between-subject factor with multiple levels each. Significance is computed as function of time and can be controlled for type II errors with overall analyses. Results are displayed in an intuitive visual interface that allows further exploration of the findings. A sample analysis of an ERP experiment illustrates the different possibilities offered by Ragu. The aim of Ragu is to maximize statistical power while minimizing the need for a-priori choices of models and parameters (like inverse models or sensors of interest) that interact with and bias statistics.
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24
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Structural plasticity in the language system related to increased second language proficiency. Cortex 2010; 48:458-65. [PMID: 21106192 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2010.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Revised: 06/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
While functional changes linked to second language learning have been subject to extensive investigation, the issue of learning-dependent structural plasticity in the fields of bilingualism and language comprehension has so far received less notice. In the present study we used voxel-based morphometry to monitor structural changes occurring within five months of second language learning. Native English-speaking exchange students learning German in Switzerland were examined once at the beginning of their stay and once about five months later, when their German language skills had significantly increased. We show that structural changes in the left inferior frontal gyrus are correlated with the increase in second language proficiency as measured by a paper-and-pencil language test. Contrary to the increase in proficiency and grey matter, the absolute values of grey matter density and second language proficiency did not correlate (neither on first nor on second measurement). This indicates that the individual amount of learning is reflected in brain structure changes, regardless of absolute proficiency.
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Maurer U, Blau VC, Yoncheva YN, McCandliss BD. Development of visual expertise for reading: rapid emergence of visual familiarity for an artificial script. Dev Neuropsychol 2010; 35:404-22. [PMID: 20614357 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2010.480916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adults produce left-lateralized N170 responses to visual words relative to control stimuli, even within tasks that do not require active reading. This specialization begins in preschoolers as a right-lateralized N170 effect. We investigated whether this developmental shift reflects an early learning phenomenon, such as attaining visual familiarity with a script, by training adults in an artificial script and measuring N170 responses before and afterward. Training enhanced the N170 response, especially over the right hemisphere. This suggests N170 sensitivity to visual familiarity with a script emerges before reading becomes sufficiently automatic to drive left-lateralized effects in a shallow encoding task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urs Maurer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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26
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Kottlow M, Praeg E, Luethy C, Jancke L. Artists’ Advance: Decreased Upper Alpha Power while Drawing in Artists Compared with Non-Artists. Brain Topogr 2010; 23:392-402. [PMID: 20945085 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-010-0163-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2010] [Accepted: 10/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mara Kottlow
- Electrophysiology Section, Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, Psychiatric University Hospital Bern, Bolligenstrasse 111, 3000, Bern 60, Switzerland.
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Fox SE, Levitt P, Nelson CA. How the timing and quality of early experiences influence the development of brain architecture. Child Dev 2010; 81:28-40. [PMID: 20331653 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01380.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 475] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Early life events can exert a powerful influence on both the pattern of brain architecture and behavioral development. In this study a conceptual framework is provided for considering how the structure of early experience gets "under the skin." The study begins with a description of the genetic framework that lays the foundation for brain development, and then proceeds to the ways experience interacts with and modifies the structures and functions of the developing brain. Much of the attention is focused on early experience and sensitive periods, although it is made clear that later experience also plays an important role in maintaining and elaborating this early wiring diagram, which is critical to establishing a solid footing for development beyond the early years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon E Fox
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Boston, MA, USA
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28
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Schmidt-Kassow M, Kulka A, Gunter TC, Rothermich K, Kotz SA. Exercising during learning improves vocabulary acquisition: behavioral and ERP evidence. Neurosci Lett 2010; 482:40-4. [PMID: 20620190 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2010] [Revised: 06/18/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have provided evidence that physical activity promotes cortical plasticity in the adult brain and in turn facilitates learning. However, until now, the effect of simultaneous physical activity (e.g. bicycling) on learning performance has not been investigated systematically. The current study aims at clarifying whether simultaneous motor activity influences verbal learning compared to learning in a physically passive situation. Therefore the learning behavior of 12 healthy subjects (4 male, 19-33 years) was monitored over a period of 3 weeks. During that time, behavioral and electrophysiological responses to memorized materials were measured. We found a larger N400 effect and better performance in vocabulary tests when subjects were physically active during the encoding phase. Thus, our data indicate that simultaneous physical activity during vocabulary learning facilitates memorization of new items.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maren Schmidt-Kassow
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany.
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Dobel C, Junghöfer M, Breitenstein C, Klauke B, Knecht S, Pantev C, Zwitserlood P. New Names for Known Things: On the Association of Novel Word Forms with Existing Semantic Information. J Cogn Neurosci 2010; 22:1251-61. [PMID: 19583468 DOI: 10.1162/jocn.2009.21297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The plasticity of the adult memory network for integrating novel word forms (lexemes) was investigated with whole-head magnetoencephalography (MEG). We showed that spoken word forms of an (artificial) foreign language are integrated rapidly and successfully into existing lexical and conceptual memory networks. The new lexemes were learned in an untutored way, by pairing them frequently with one particular object (and thus meaning), and infrequently with 10 other objects (learned set). Other novel word forms were encountered just as often, but paired with many different objects (nonlearned set). Their impact on semantic memory was assessed with cross-modal priming, with novel word forms as primes and object pictures as targets. The MEG counterpart of the N400 (N400m) served as an indicator of a semantic (mis)match between words and pictures. Prior to learning, all novel words induced a pronounced N400m mismatch effect to the pictures. This component was strongly reduced after training for the learned novel lexemes only, and now closely resembled the brain's response to semantically related native-language words. This result cannot be explained by mere stimulus repetition or stimulus–stimulus association. Thus, learned novel words rapidly gained access to existing conceptual representations, as effectively as related native-language words. This association of novel lexemes and conceptual information happened fast and almost without effort. Neural networks mediating these integration processes were found within left temporal lobe, an area typically described as one of the main generators of the N400 response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Dobel
- Institut für Biomagnetismus und Biosignalanalyse, Malmedyweg 15, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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30
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ZHU ZX, LIU L, DING GS, PENG DL. The Influence of Pinyin Typewriting Experience on Orthographic and Phonological Processing of Chinese Characters. ACTA PSYCHOLOGICA SINICA 2009. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1041.2009.00785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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31
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Reduced frontal activation with increasing 2nd language proficiency. Neuropsychologia 2009; 47:2712-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2009] [Revised: 05/13/2009] [Accepted: 05/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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32
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Davidson DJ, Indefrey P. Plasticity of grammatical recursion in German learners of Dutch. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/01690960902981883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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33
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Wirth M, Horn H, Koenig T, Razafimandimby A, Stein M, Mueller T, Federspiel A, Meier B, Dierks T, Strik W. The early context effect reflects activity in the temporo-prefrontal semantic system: Evidence from electrical neuroimaging of abstract and concrete word reading. Neuroimage 2008; 42:423-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2007] [Revised: 03/17/2008] [Accepted: 03/19/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Koenig T, Melie-García L, Stein M, Strik W, Lehmann C. Establishing correlations of scalp field maps with other experimental variables using covariance analysis and resampling methods. Clin Neurophysiol 2008; 119:1262-70. [PMID: 18424230 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2007.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2005] [Revised: 11/19/2007] [Accepted: 12/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In EEG/MEG experiments, increasing the number of sensors improves the spatial resolution of the results. However, the standard statistical methods are inappropriate for these multivariate, highly correlated datasets. We introduce a procedure to identify spatially extended scalp fields that correlate with some external, continuous measure (reaction-time, performance, clinical status) and to test their significance. METHODS We formally deduce that the channel-wise covariance of some experimental variable with scalp field data directly represents intracerebral sources associated with that variable. We furthermore show how the significance of such a representation can be tested with resampling techniques. RESULTS Simulations showed that depending on the number of channels and subjects, effects can be detected already at low signal to noise ratios. In a sample analysis of real data, we found that foreign-language evoked ERP data were significantly associated with foreign-language proficiency. Inverse solutions of the extracted covariances pointed to sources in language-related areas. CONCLUSIONS Covariance mapping combined with bootstrapping methods has high statistical power and yields unique and directly interpretable results. SIGNIFICANCE The introduced methodology overcomes some of the 'traditional' statistical problems in EEG/MEG scalp data analysis. Its application can improve the reproducibility of results in the field of EEG/MEG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Koenig
- Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry, Bolligenstr. 111, 3000 Bern 60, Switzerland.
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35
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Wydenkeller S, Wirz R, Halder P. Spinothalamic tract conduction velocity estimated using contact heat evoked potentials: What needs to be considered. Clin Neurophysiol 2008; 119:812-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2007.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Revised: 10/11/2007] [Accepted: 12/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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36
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Deng Y, Booth JR, Chou TL, Ding GS, Peng DL. Item-specific and generalization effects on brain activation when learning Chinese characters. Neuropsychologia 2007; 46:1864-76. [PMID: 18514678 PMCID: PMC2632882 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2007] [Revised: 08/16/2007] [Accepted: 09/09/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Neural changes related to learning of the meaning of Chinese characters in English speakers were examined using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We examined item specific learning effects for trained characters, but also the generalization of semantic knowledge to novel transfer characters that shared a semantic radical (part of a character that gives a clue to word meaning, e.g. water for lake) with trained characters. Behavioral results show that acquired semantic knowledge improves performance for both trained and transfer characters. Neuroimaging results show that the left fusiform gyrus plays a central role in the visual processing of orthographic information in characters. The left superior parietal cortex seems to play a crucial role in learning the visual-spatial aspects of the characters because it shows learning related decreases for trained characters, is correlated with behavioral improvement from early to late in learning for the trained characters, and is correlated with better long-term retention for the transfer characters. The inferior frontal gyrus seems to be associated with the efficiency of retrieving and manipulating semantic representations because there are learning related decreases for trained characters and this decrease is correlated with greater behavioral improvement from early to late in learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Deng
- State Key Lab of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China
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