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Spead O, Moreland T, Weaver CJ, Costa ID, Hegarty B, Kramer KL, Poulain FE. Teneurin trans-axonal signaling prunes topographically missorted axons. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112192. [PMID: 36857189 PMCID: PMC10131173 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Building precise neural circuits necessitates the elimination of axonal projections that have inaccurately formed during development. Although axonal pruning is a selective process, how it is initiated and controlled in vivo remains unclear. Here, we show that trans-axonal signaling mediated by the cell surface molecules Glypican-3, Teneurin-3, and Latrophilin-3 prunes misrouted retinal axons in the visual system. Retinotopic neuron transplantations revealed that pioneer ventral axons that elongate first along the optic tract instruct the pruning of dorsal axons that missort in that region. Glypican-3 and Teneurin-3 are both selectively expressed by ventral retinal ganglion cells and cooperate for correcting missorted dorsal axons. The adhesion G-protein-coupled receptor Latrophilin-3 signals along dorsal axons to initiate the elimination of topographic sorting errors. Altogether, our findings show an essential function for Glypican-3, Teneurin-3, and Latrophilin-3 in topographic tract organization and demonstrate that axonal pruning can be initiated by signaling among axons themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Spead
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Trevor Moreland
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Cory J Weaver
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Irene Dalla Costa
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Brianna Hegarty
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | | | - Fabienne E Poulain
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
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2
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Marques C, Poças J, Gomes C, Faria-Ramos I, Reis CA, Vivès RR, Magalhães A. Glycosyltransferases EXTL2 and EXTL3 cellular balance dictates Heparan Sulfate biosynthesis and shapes gastric cancer cell motility and invasion. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102546. [PMID: 36181793 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans (HSPGs) are abundant glycoconjugates in cells' glycocalyx and Extracellular Matrix (ECM). By acting as scaffolds for protein-protein interactions, HSPGs modulate extracellular ligand gradients, cell signaling networks, and cell-ECM crosstalk. Aberrant expression of HSPGs and enzymes involved in HSPG biosynthesis and processing has been reported in tumors, with impact in cancer cell behavior and tumor microenvironment properties. However, the roles of specific glycosyltransferases in the deregulated biosynthesis of HSPGs are not fully understood. In this study, we established glycoengineered gastric cancer cell models lacking either Exostosin Like glycosyltransferase 2 (EXTL2) or EXTL3, and revealed their regulatory roles in both Heparan Sulfate (HS) and Chondroitin Sulfate (CS) biosynthesis and structural features. We showed that EXTL3 is key for initiating the synthesis of HS chains in detriment of CS biosynthesis, intervening in the fine-tuned balance of the HS/CS ratio in cells, while EXTL2 functions as a negative regulator of HS biosynthesis, with impact over the glycoproteome of gastric cancer cells. We demonstrated that knock-out of EXTL2 enhanced HS levels along with concomitant upregulation of Syndecan-4, which is a major cell-surface carrier of HS. This aberrant HS expression profile promoted a more aggressive phenotype, characterized by higher cellular motility and invasion, and impaired activation of Ephrin type-A 4 cell surface receptor tyrosine kinase. Our findings uncover the biosynthetic roles of EXTL2 and EXTL3 in the regulation of cancer cell GAGosylation and proteoglycans expression, and unravel the functional consequences of aberrant HS/CS balance in cellular malignant features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Marques
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Programa Doutoral em Biologia Molecular e Celular (MCbiology), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Juliana Poças
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina Gomes
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Isabel Faria-Ramos
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Celso A Reis
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; FMUP - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Ana Magalhães
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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3
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Jones AA, Diamantopoulou E, Baxendale S, Whitfield TT. Presence of chondroitin sulphate and requirement for heparan sulphate biosynthesis in the developing zebrafish inner ear. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:959624. [PMID: 36092694 PMCID: PMC9458858 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.959624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial morphogenesis to form the semicircular canal ducts of the zebrafish inner ear depends on the production of the large glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan, which is thought to contribute to the driving force that pushes projections of epithelium into the lumen of the otic vesicle. Proteoglycans are also implicated in otic morphogenesis: several of the genes coding for proteoglycan core proteins, together with enzymes that synthesise and modify their polysaccharide chains, are expressed in the developing zebrafish inner ear. In this study, we demonstrate the highly specific localisation of chondroitin sulphate to the sites of epithelial projection outgrowth in the ear, present before any morphological deformation of the epithelium. Staining for chondroitin sulphate is also present in the otolithic membrane, whereas the otoliths are strongly positive for keratan sulphate. We show that heparan sulphate biosynthesis is critical for normal epithelial projection outgrowth, otolith growth and tethering. In the ext2 mutant ear, which has reduced heparan sulphate levels, but continues to produce hyaluronan, epithelial projections are rudimentary, and do not grow sufficiently to meet and fuse to form the pillars of tissue that normally span the otic lumen. Staining for chondroitin sulphate and expression of versican b, a chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan core protein gene, persist abnormally at high levels in the unfused projections of the ext2 mutant ear. We propose a model for wild-type epithelial projection outgrowth in which hyaluronan and proteoglycans are linked to form a hydrated gel that fills the projection core, with both classes of molecule playing essential roles in zebrafish semicircular canal morphogenesis.
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4
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Mizumoto S, Yamada S. Congenital Disorders of Deficiency in Glycosaminoglycan Biosynthesis. Front Genet 2021; 12:717535. [PMID: 34539746 PMCID: PMC8446454 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.717535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) including chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate are covalently attached to specific core proteins to form proteoglycans, which are distributed at the cell surface as well as in the extracellular matrix. Proteoglycans and GAGs have been demonstrated to exhibit a variety of physiological functions such as construction of the extracellular matrix, tissue development, and cell signaling through interactions with extracellular matrix components, morphogens, cytokines, and growth factors. Not only connective tissue disorders including skeletal dysplasia, chondrodysplasia, multiple exostoses, and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, but also heart and kidney defects, immune deficiencies, and neurological abnormalities have been shown to be caused by defects in GAGs as well as core proteins of proteoglycans. These findings indicate that GAGs and proteoglycans are essential for human development in major organs. The glycobiological aspects of congenital disorders caused by defects in GAG-biosynthetic enzymes including specific glysocyltransferases, epimerases, and sulfotransferases, in addition to core proteins of proteoglycans will be comprehensively discussed based on the literature to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Mizumoto
- Department of Pathobiochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Shuhei Yamada
- Department of Pathobiochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan
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5
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Abstract
Establishment of neural circuits requires reproducible and precise interactions between growing axons, dendrites and their tissue environment. Cell adhesion molecules and guidance factors are involved in the process, but how specificity is achieved remains poorly understood. Glycans are the third major class of biopolymers besides nucleic acids and proteins, and are usually covalently linked to proteins to form glycoconjugates. Common to most glycans is an extraordinary level of molecular diversity, making them attractive candidates to contribute specificity during neural development. Indeed, many genes important for neural development encode glycoproteins, or enzymes involved in synthesizing or modifying glycans. Glycoconjugates are classified based on both the types of glycans and type of attachment that link them to proteins. Here I discuss progress in understanding the function of glycans, glycan modifications and glycoconjugates during neural development in Caenorhabditis elegans. I will also highlight relevance to human disease and known roles of glycoconjugates in regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes E Bülow
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States; Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States.
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Slit2 is necessary for optic axon organization in the zebrafish ventral midline. Cells Dev 2021; 166:203677. [PMID: 33994352 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdev.2021.203677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Slit-Robo signaling has been implicated in regulating several steps of retinal ganglion cell axon guidance, with a central role assigned to Slit2. We report here the phenotypical characterization of a CRISPR-Cas9-generated zebrafish null mutant for this gene, along with a detailed analysis of its expression pattern by WM-FISH. All evident defects in the optic axons in slit2-/- mutants were detected outside the retina, coincident with the major sites of expression at the ventral forebrain, around the developing optic nerve and anterior to the optic chiasm/proximal tract. Anterograde axon tracing experiments in zygotic and maternal-zygotic mutants, as well as morphants, showed the occurrence of axon sorting defects, which appeared mild at the optic nerve level, but more severe in the optic chiasm and the proximal tract. A remarkable sorting defect was the usual splitting of one of the optic nerves in two branches that surrounded the contralateral nerve at the chiasm. Although all axons eventually crossed the midline, the retinotopic order appeared lost at the proximal optic tract, to eventually correct distally. Time-lapse analysis demonstrated the sporadic occurrence of axon misrouting at the chiasm level, which could be responsible for the sorting errors. Our results support previous evidence of a channeling role for Slit molecules in retinal ganglion cell axons at the optic nerve, in addition to a function in the segregation of axons coming from each nerve and from different retinal regions at the medio-ventral area of the forebrain.
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7
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Keil S, Gupta M, Brand M, Knopf F. Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in the regenerating zebrafish fin. Dev Dyn 2021; 250:1368-1380. [PMID: 33638212 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) expression is found in many animal tissues and regulates growth factor signaling such as of Fibroblast growth factors (Fgf), Wingless/Int (Wnt) and Hedgehog (HH). Glypicans, which are GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol)-anchored proteins, and transmembrane-anchored syndecans represent two major HSPG protein families whose involvement in development and disease has been demonstrated. Their participation in regenerative processes both of the central nervous system and of regenerating limbs is well documented. However, whether HSPG are expressed in regenerating zebrafish fins, is currently unknown. RESULTS Here, we carried out a systematic screen of glypican and syndecan mRNA expression in regenerating zebrafish fins during the outgrowth phase. We find that 8 of the 10 zebrafish glypicans and the three known zebrafish syndecans show specific expression at 3 days post amputation. Expression is found in different domains of the regenerate, including the distal and lateral basal layers of the wound epidermis, the distal most blastema and more proximal blastema regions. CONCLUSIONS HSPG expression is prevalent in regenerating zebrafish fins. Further research is needed to delineate the function of glypican and syndecan action during zebrafish fin regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Keil
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Technische Universität Dresden, Center for Healthy Aging TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mansi Gupta
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Merus N.V, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Michael Brand
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Franziska Knopf
- Technische Universität Dresden, CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Technische Universität Dresden, Center for Healthy Aging TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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8
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Faria-Ramos I, Poças J, Marques C, Santos-Antunes J, Macedo G, Reis CA, Magalhães A. Heparan Sulfate Glycosaminoglycans: (Un)Expected Allies in Cancer Clinical Management. Biomolecules 2021; 11:136. [PMID: 33494442 PMCID: PMC7911160 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In an era when cancer glycobiology research is exponentially growing, we are witnessing a progressive translation of the major scientific findings to the clinical practice with the overarching aim of improving cancer patients' management. Many mechanistic cell biology studies have demonstrated that heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycans are key molecules responsible for several molecular and biochemical processes, impacting extracellular matrix properties and cellular functions. HS can interact with a myriad of different ligands, and therefore, hold a pleiotropic role in regulating the activity of important cellular receptors and downstream signalling pathways. The aberrant expression of HS glycan chains in tumours determines main malignant features, such as cancer cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. In this review, we devote particular attention to HS biological activities, its expression profile and modulation in cancer. Moreover, we highlight HS clinical potential to improve both diagnosis and prognosis of cancer, either as HS-based biomarkers or as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Faria-Ramos
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Juliana Poças
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Molecular Biology Department, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina Marques
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Molecular Biology Department, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - João Santos-Antunes
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Pathology Department, Faculdade de Medicina, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
- Gastroenterology Department, Centro Hospitalar S. João, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Guilherme Macedo
- Pathology Department, Faculdade de Medicina, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
- Gastroenterology Department, Centro Hospitalar S. João, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Celso A. Reis
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Molecular Biology Department, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Pathology Department, Faculdade de Medicina, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Ana Magalhães
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
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9
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Filipek-Górniok B, Habicher J, Ledin J, Kjellén L. Heparan Sulfate Biosynthesis in Zebrafish. J Histochem Cytochem 2020; 69:49-60. [PMID: 33216642 DOI: 10.1369/0022155420973980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The biosynthesis of heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans occurs in the Golgi compartment of cells and will determine the sulfation pattern of HS chains, which in turn will have a large impact on the biological activity of the proteoglycans. Earlier studies in mice have demonstrated the importance of HS for embryonic development. In this review, the enzymes participating in zebrafish HS biosynthesis, along with a description of enzyme mutants available for functional studies, are presented. The consequences of the zebrafish genome duplication and maternal transcript contribution are briefly discussed as are the possibilities of CRISPR/Cas9 methodologies to use the zebrafish model system for studies of biosynthesis as well as proteoglycan biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Filipek-Górniok
- Department of Organismal Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Judith Habicher
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Ledin
- Department of Organismal Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lena Kjellén
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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10
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Trans-Axonal Signaling in Neural Circuit Wiring. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21145170. [PMID: 32708320 PMCID: PMC7404203 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21145170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of neural circuits is a complex process that relies on the proper navigation of axons through their environment to their appropriate targets. While axon–environment and axon–target interactions have long been known as essential for circuit formation, communication between axons themselves has only more recently emerged as another crucial mechanism. Trans-axonal signaling governs many axonal behaviors, including fasciculation for proper guidance to targets, defasciculation for pathfinding at important choice points, repulsion along and within tracts for pre-target sorting and target selection, repulsion at the target for precise synaptic connectivity, and potentially selective degeneration for circuit refinement. This review outlines the recent advances in identifying the molecular mechanisms of trans-axonal signaling and discusses the role of axon–axon interactions during the different steps of neural circuit formation.
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11
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Khalil R, Lalai RA, Wiweger MI, Avramut CM, Koster AJ, Spaink HP, Bruijn JA, Hogendoorn PCW, Baelde HJ. Glomerular permeability is not affected by heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan deficiency in zebrafish embryos. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2019; 317:F1211-F1216. [PMID: 31461353 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00126.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteinuria develops when specific components in the glomerular filtration barrier have impaired function. Although the precise components involved in maintaining this barrier have not been fully identified, heparan sulfate proteoglycans are believed to play an essential role in maintaining glomerular filtration. Although in situ studies have shown that a loss of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans increases the permeability of the glomerular filtration barrier, recent studies using experimental models have shown that podocyte-specific deletion of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan assembly does not lead to proteinuria. However, tubular reabsorption of leaked proteins might have masked an increase in glomerular permeability in these models. Furthermore, not only podocytes but also glomerular endothelial cells are involved in heparan sulfate synthesis in the glomerular filtration barrier. Therefore, we investigated the effect of a global heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan deficiency on glomerular permeability. We used a zebrafish embryo model carrying a homozygous germline mutation in the ext2 gene. Glomerular permeability was assessed with a quantitative dextran tracer injection method. In this model, we accounted for tubular reabsorption. Loss of anionic sites in the glomerular basement membrane was measured using polyethyleneimine staining. Although mutant animals had significantly fewer negatively charged areas in the glomerular basement membrane, glomerular permeability was unaffected. Moreover, heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan-deficient embryos had morphologically intact podocyte foot processes. Glomerular filtration remains fully functional despite a global reduction of heparan sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramzi Khalil
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Reshma A Lalai
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Cristina M Avramut
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Abraham J Koster
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Herman P Spaink
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A Bruijn
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Hans J Baelde
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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12
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Alavi Naini SM, Soussi-Yanicostas N. Heparan Sulfate as a Therapeutic Target in Tauopathies: Insights From Zebrafish. Front Cell Dev Biol 2018; 6:163. [PMID: 30619849 PMCID: PMC6306439 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2018.00163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT) hyperphosphorylation and aggregation, are two hallmarks of a family of neurodegenerative disorders collectively referred to as tauopathies. In many tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and Pick's disease, tau aggregates are found associated with highly sulfated polysaccharides known as heparan sulfates (HSs). In AD, amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide aggregates associated with HS are also characteristic of disease. Heparin, an HS analog, promotes misfolding, hyperphosphorylation and aggregation of tau protein in vitro. HS also provides cell surface receptors for attachment and uptake of tau seeds, enabling their propagation. These findings point to HS-tau interactions as potential therapeutic targets in tauopathies. The zebrafish genome contains genes paralogous to MAPT, genes orthologous to HS biosynthetic and chain modifier enzymes, and other genes implicated in AD. The nervous system in the zebrafish bears anatomical and chemical similarities to that in humans. These homologies, together with numerous technical advantages, make zebrafish a valuable model for investigating basic mechanisms in tauopathies and identifying therapeutic targets. Here, we comprehensively review current knowledge on the role of HSs in tau pathology and HS-targeting therapeutic approaches. We also discuss novel insights from zebrafish suggesting a role for HS 3-O-sulfated motifs in tau pathology and establishing HS antagonists as potential preventive agents or therapies for tauopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyedeh Maryam Alavi Naini
- Department of Neuroscience, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine (IBPS), INSERM, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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13
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Moussaed M, Huc-Brandt S, Cubedo N, Silhol M, Murat S, Lebart MC, Kovacs G, Verdier JM, Trousse F, Rossel M, Marcilhac A. Regenerating islet-derived 1α (REG-1α) protein increases tau phosphorylation in cell and animal models of tauopathies. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 119:136-148. [PMID: 30092268 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
REG-1α, a secreted protein containing a C-type lectin domain, is expressed in various organs and plays different roles in digestive system cells in physiological and pathological conditions. Like other members of the Reg family, REG-1α is expressed also in the brain where it has different functions. For instance, we previously reported that REG-1α regulates neurite outgrowth and is overexpressed during the very early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, REG-1α function in neural cells during neural degeneration remains unknown. First, REG-1α and phosphorylated tau expression were assessed in tissue sections from the hippocampus, representing neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), from patients with AD, and from basal ganglia, representing subcortical NFTs, from patients with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP). We found an association between REG-1α expression, tau hyperphosphorylation and NFTs in human brain samples from patients with these neurodegenerative diseases. Then, the effects of REG-1α overexpression on tau phosphorylation and axonal morphology were investigated i) in primary cultures of rat neurons that express human tau P301L and ii) in a transgenic zebrafish model of tauopathy that expresses human tau P301L. In the tau P301L cell model, REG-1α overexpression increased tau phosphorylation at the S202/T205 and S396 residues (early and late stages of abnormal phosphorylation, respectively) through the AKT/GSK3-β pathway. This effect was associated with axonal defects both in tau P301L-expressing rat neurons and zebrafish embryos. Our findings suggest a functional role for REG-1α during tauopathy development and progression and, specifically, its involvement in the modification of tau phosphorylation temporal sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mireille Moussaed
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Sylvaine Huc-Brandt
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Nicolas Cubedo
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Michele Silhol
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Samy Murat
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Marie-Christine Lebart
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Gabor Kovacs
- Institute of Neurology, Neurodegeneration Research Group, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jean-Michel Verdier
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Francoise Trousse
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Mireille Rossel
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France
| | - Anne Marcilhac
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier F-34095, France.
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14
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Townley RA, Bülow HE. Deciphering functional glycosaminoglycan motifs in development. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2018; 50:144-154. [PMID: 29579579 PMCID: PMC6078790 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2018.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) such as heparan sulfate, chondroitin/dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate are linear glycans, which when attached to protein backbones form proteoglycans. GAGs are essential components of the extracellular space in metazoans. Extensive modifications of the glycans such as sulfation, deacetylation and epimerization create structural GAG motifs. These motifs regulate protein-protein interactions and are thereby repsonsible for many of the essential functions of GAGs. This review focusses on recent genetic approaches to characterize GAG motifs and their function in defined signaling pathways during development. We discuss a coding approach for GAGs that would enable computational analyses of GAG sequences such as alignments and the computation of position weight matrices to describe GAG motifs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Townley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, United States
| | - Hannes E Bülow
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, United States; Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, United States.
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15
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Di Donato V, De Santis F, Albadri S, Auer TO, Duroure K, Charpentier M, Concordet JP, Gebhardt C, Del Bene F. An Attractive Reelin Gradient Establishes Synaptic Lamination in the Vertebrate Visual System. Neuron 2018; 97:1049-1062.e6. [PMID: 29429939 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A conserved organizational and functional principle of neural networks is the segregation of axon-dendritic synaptic connections into laminae. Here we report that targeting of synaptic laminae by retinal ganglion cell (RGC) arbors in the vertebrate visual system is regulated by a signaling system relying on target-derived Reelin and VLDLR/Dab1a on the projecting neurons. Furthermore, we find that Reelin is distributed as a gradient on the target tissue and stabilized by heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) in the extracellular matrix (ECM). Through genetic manipulations, we show that this Reelin gradient is important for laminar targeting and that it is attractive for RGC axons. Finally, we suggest a comprehensive model of synaptic lamina formation in which attractive Reelin counter-balances repulsive Slit1, thereby guiding RGC axons toward single synaptic laminae. We establish a mechanism that may represent a general principle for neural network assembly in vertebrate species and across different brain areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Di Donato
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U934, CNRS UMR3215, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris 75005, France
| | - Flavia De Santis
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U934, CNRS UMR3215, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris 75005, France
| | - Shahad Albadri
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U934, CNRS UMR3215, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris 75005, France
| | - Thomas Oliver Auer
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U934, CNRS UMR3215, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris 75005, France
| | - Karine Duroure
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U934, CNRS UMR3215, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris 75005, France
| | - Marine Charpentier
- Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, INSERM U1154, CNRS UMR7196, Paris 75231, France
| | - Jean-Paul Concordet
- Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, INSERM U1154, CNRS UMR7196, Paris 75231, France
| | - Christoph Gebhardt
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U934, CNRS UMR3215, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris 75005, France.
| | - Filippo Del Bene
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U934, CNRS UMR3215, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris 75005, France.
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16
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Awad W, Kjellström S, Svensson Birkedal G, Mani K, Logan DT. Structural and Biophysical Characterization of Human EXTL3: Domain Organization, Glycosylation, and Solution Structure. Biochemistry 2018; 57:1166-1177. [PMID: 29346724 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are proteins substituted with one or more heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides, found in abundance at cell surfaces. HS chains influence the activity of many biologically important molecules involved in cellular communication and signaling. The exostosin (EXT) proteins are glycosyltransferases in the Golgi apparatus that assemble HS chains on HSPGs. The EXTL3 enzyme mainly works as an initiator in HS biosynthesis. In this work, human lumenal N-glycosylated EXTL3 (EXTL3ΔN) was cloned, expressed in human embryonic kidney cells, and purified. Various biophysical and biochemical approaches were then employed to elucidate the N-glycosylation sites and the function of their attached N-glycans. Furthermore, the stability and conformation of the purified EXTL3ΔN protein in solution have been analyzed. Our data show that EXTL3ΔN has N-glycans at least at two positions, Asn290 and Asn592, which seem to be critical for proper protein folding and/or release. EXTL3ΔN is quite stable, as high temperature (∼59 °C) was required for denaturation. Deconvolution of the EXTL3ΔN far-UV CD spectrum revealed a substantial fraction of β sheets (25%) with a minor proportion of α-helices (14%) in the secondary structure. Solution small-angle X-ray scattering and dynamic light scattering revealed an extended structure suggestive of a dimeric arrangement and consisting of two distinct regions, narrow and broad, respectively. This is consistent with bioinformatics analyses suggesting a 3-domain structure with two glycosyltransferase domains and a coiled-coil domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wael Awad
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Molecular Protein Science, Deptartment of Chemistry, Lund University , SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden.,Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Cairo University , 12316 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Sven Kjellström
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Molecular Protein Science, Deptartment of Chemistry, Lund University , SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Gabriel Svensson Birkedal
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Division of Neuroscience, Glycobiology Group, Lund University , SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Katrin Mani
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Division of Neuroscience, Glycobiology Group, Lund University , SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Derek T Logan
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Centre for Molecular Protein Science, Deptartment of Chemistry, Lund University , SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
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17
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Saied-Santiago K, Bülow HE. Diverse roles for glycosaminoglycans in neural patterning. Dev Dyn 2018; 247:54-74. [PMID: 28736980 PMCID: PMC5866094 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2017] [Revised: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The nervous system coordinates the functions of most multicellular organisms and their response to the surrounding environment. Its development involves concerted cellular interactions, including migration, axon guidance, and synapse formation. These processes depend on the molecular constituents and structure of the extracellular matrices (ECM). An essential component of ECMs are proteoglycans, i.e., proteins containing unbranched glycan chains known as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). A defining characteristic of GAGs is their enormous molecular diversity, created by extensive modifications of the glycans during their biosynthesis. GAGs are widely expressed, and their loss can lead to catastrophic neuronal defects. Despite their importance, we are just beginning to understand the function and mechanisms of GAGs in neuronal development. In this review, we discuss recent evidence suggesting GAGs have specific roles in neuronal patterning and synaptogenesis. We examine the function played by the complex modifications present on GAG glycans and their roles in regulating different aspects of neuronal patterning. Moreover, the review considers the function of proteoglycan core proteins in these processes, stressing their likely role as co-receptors of different signaling pathways in a redundant and context-dependent manner. We conclude by discussing challenges and future directions toward a better understanding of these fascinating molecules during neuronal development. Developmental Dynamics 247:54-74, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hannes E. Bülow
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, 10461
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, 10461
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18
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Guidance of retinal axons in mammals. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 85:48-59. [PMID: 29174916 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In order to navigate through the surrounding environment many mammals, including humans, primarily rely on vision. The eye, composed of the choroid, sclera, retinal pigmented epithelium, cornea, lens, iris and retina, is the structure that receives the light and converts it into electrical impulses. The retina contains six major types of neurons involving in receiving and modifying visual information and passing it onto higher visual processing centres in the brain. Visual information is relayed to the brain via the axons of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), a projection known as the optic pathway. The proper formation of this pathway during development is essential for normal vision in the adult individual. Along this pathway there are several points where visual axons face 'choices' in their direction of growth. Understanding how these choices are made has advanced significantly our knowledge of axon guidance mechanisms. Thus, the development of the visual pathway has served as an extremely useful model to reveal general principles of axon pathfinding throughout the nervous system. However, due to its particularities, some cellular and molecular mechanisms are specific for the visual circuit. Here we review both general and specific mechanisms involved in the guidance of mammalian RGC axons when they are traveling from the retina to the brain to establish precise and stereotyped connections that will sustain vision.
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19
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Okada T, Keino-Masu K, Nagamine S, Kametani F, Ohto T, Hasegawa M, van Kuppevelt TH, Kunita S, Takahashi S, Masu M. Desulfation of Heparan Sulfate by Sulf1 and Sulf2 Is Required for Corticospinal Tract Formation. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13847. [PMID: 29062064 PMCID: PMC5653861 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14185-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) has been implicated in a wide range of cell signaling. Here we report a novel mechanism in which extracellular removal of 6-O-sulfate groups from HS by the endosulfatases, Sulf1 and Sulf2, is essential for axon guidance during development. In Sulf1/2 double knockout (DKO) mice, the corticospinal tract (CST) was dorsally displaced on the midbrain surface. In utero electroporation of Sulf1/2 into radial glial cells along the third ventricle, where Sulf1/2 mRNAs are normally expressed, rescued the CST defects in the DKO mice. Proteomic analysis and functional testing identified Slit2 as the key molecule associated with the DKO phenotype. In the DKO brain, 6-O-sulfated HS was increased, leading to abnormal accumulation of Slit2 protein on the pial surface of the cerebral peduncle and hypothalamus, which caused dorsal repulsion of CST axons. Our findings indicate that postbiosynthetic desulfation of HS by Sulfs controls CST axon guidance through fine-tuning of Slit2 presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Okada
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Kazuko Keino-Masu
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Satoshi Nagamine
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan.,Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency, 3-3-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, 100-0013, Japan
| | - Fuyuki Kametani
- Department of Neuropathology and Cell Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 156-8506, Japan
| | - Tatsuyuki Ohto
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Tsukuba Hospital, 2-1-1 Amakubo, Ibaraki, 305-8576, Japan
| | - Masato Hasegawa
- Department of Neuropathology and Cell Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 156-8506, Japan
| | - Toin H van Kuppevelt
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Satoshi Kunita
- Laboratory Animal Resource Center, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan.,Center for Experimental Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1 Yakushiji, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Satoru Takahashi
- Laboratory Animal Resource Center, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Masayuki Masu
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan.
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20
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Manavalan MA, Jayasinghe VR, Grewal R, Bhat KM. The glycosylation pathway is required for the secretion of Slit and for the maintenance of the Slit receptor Robo on axons. Sci Signal 2017; 10:eaam5841. [PMID: 28634210 PMCID: PMC5846327 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aam5841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Slit proteins act as repulsive axon guidance cues by activating receptors of the Roundabout (Robo) family. During early neurogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster, Slit prevents the growth cones of longitudinal tract neurons from inappropriately crossing the midline, thus restricting these cells to trajectories parallel to the midline. Slit is expressed in midline glial cells, and Robo is present in longitudinal axon tracts and growth cones. We showed that the enzyme Mummy (Mmy) controlled Slit-Robo signaling through mechanisms that affected both the ligand and the receptor. Mmy was required for the glycosylation of Slit, which was essential for Slit secretion. Mmy was also required for maintaining the abundance and spatial distribution of Robo through an indirect mechanism that was independent of Slit secretion. Moreover, secretion of Slit was required to maintain the fasciculation and position of longitudinal axon tracts, thus maintaining the hardwiring of the nervous system. Thus, Mmy is required for Slit secretion and for maintaining Robo abundance and distribution in the developing nervous system in Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Ann Manavalan
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Vatsala Ruvini Jayasinghe
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Rickinder Grewal
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Krishna Moorthi Bhat
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
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21
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Oud MM, Tuijnenburg P, Hempel M, van Vlies N, Ren Z, Ferdinandusse S, Jansen MH, Santer R, Johannsen J, Bacchelli C, Alders M, Li R, Davies R, Dupuis L, Cale CM, Wanders RJA, Pals ST, Ocaka L, James C, Müller I, Lehmberg K, Strom T, Engels H, Williams HJ, Beales P, Roepman R, Dias P, Brunner HG, Cobben JM, Hall C, Hartley T, Le Quesne Stabej P, Mendoza-Londono R, Davies EG, de Sousa SB, Lessel D, Arts HH, Kuijpers TW. Mutations in EXTL3 Cause Neuro-immuno-skeletal Dysplasia Syndrome. Am J Hum Genet 2017; 100:281-296. [PMID: 28132690 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
EXTL3 regulates the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate (HS), important for both skeletal development and hematopoiesis, through the formation of HS proteoglycans (HSPGs). By whole-exome sequencing, we identified homozygous missense mutations c.1382C>T, c.1537C>T, c.1970A>G, and c.2008T>G in EXTL3 in nine affected individuals from five unrelated families. Notably, we found the identical homozygous missense mutation c.1382C>T (p.Pro461Leu) in four affected individuals from two unrelated families. Affected individuals presented with variable skeletal abnormalities and neurodevelopmental defects. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) with a complete absence of T cells was observed in three families. EXTL3 was most abundant in hematopoietic stem cells and early progenitor T cells, which is in line with a SCID phenotype at the level of early T cell development in the thymus. To provide further support for the hypothesis that mutations in EXTL3 cause a neuro-immuno-skeletal dysplasia syndrome, and to gain insight into the pathogenesis of the disorder, we analyzed the localization of EXTL3 in fibroblasts derived from affected individuals and determined glycosaminoglycan concentrations in these cells as well as in urine and blood. We observed abnormal glycosaminoglycan concentrations and increased concentrations of the non-sulfated chondroitin disaccharide D0a0 and the disaccharide D0a4 in serum and urine of all analyzed affected individuals. In summary, we show that biallelic mutations in EXTL3 disturb glycosaminoglycan synthesis and thus lead to a recognizable syndrome characterized by variable expression of skeletal, neurological, and immunological abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Machteld M Oud
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | - Paul Tuijnenburg
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Pediatric Hematology, Immunology, and Infectious disease, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maja Hempel
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Naomi van Vlies
- Laboratory Genetic Metabolic Diseases, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Zemin Ren
- Department of Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sacha Ferdinandusse
- Laboratory Genetic Metabolic Diseases, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Machiel H Jansen
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Pediatric Hematology, Immunology, and Infectious disease, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - René Santer
- Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jessika Johannsen
- Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Chiara Bacchelli
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK
| | - Marielle Alders
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada; McGill University and Génome Québec Innovation Centre, Montreal, QC H3A 0G1, Canada
| | - Rosalind Davies
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK
| | - Lucie Dupuis
- Division of Clinical and Metabolic Genetics, Department of Paediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Catherine M Cale
- Department of Immunology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, WC1N 3JH London, UK
| | - Ronald J A Wanders
- Laboratory Genetic Metabolic Diseases, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Steven T Pals
- Department of Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Louise Ocaka
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK
| | - Chela James
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK
| | - Ingo Müller
- Division of Pediatric Stem Cell Transplantation and Immunology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kai Lehmberg
- Division of Pediatric Stem Cell Transplantation and Immunology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tim Strom
- Institute of Human Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Institute of Human Genetics, Technische Universität München, 81675 München, Germany
| | - Hartmut Engels
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Hywel J Williams
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK
| | - Phil Beales
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK
| | - Ronald Roepman
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Patricia Dias
- Serviςo de Genética, Departamento de Pediatria, Hospital de Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Lisboa Norte, Centro Académico de Medicina de Lisboa, 1640-035 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Han G Brunner
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jan-Maarten Cobben
- Department of Pediatrics, Academic Medical Center University Hospital, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Clinical Genetics, St. George's University Hospital, SW19 0ER London, UK
| | - Christine Hall
- Emerita, Department of Radiology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, WC1N 3JH London, UK
| | - Taila Hartley
- Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8 L1, Canada
| | - Polona Le Quesne Stabej
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK
| | - Roberto Mendoza-Londono
- Division of Clinical and Metabolic Genetics, Department of Paediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - E Graham Davies
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK; Department of Immunology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, WC1N 3JH London, UK
| | - Sérgio B de Sousa
- COSgene, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, WC1N 1EH London, UK; Medical Genetics Unit, Hospital Pediátrico, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3000-602 Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Davor Lessel
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Heleen H Arts
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University Medical Centre, Hamilton, ON L8S 4J9, Canada
| | - Taco W Kuijpers
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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22
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Volpi S, Yamazaki Y, Brauer PM, van Rooijen E, Hayashida A, Slavotinek A, Sun Kuehn H, Di Rocco M, Rivolta C, Bortolomai I, Du L, Felgentreff K, Ott de Bruin L, Hayashida K, Freedman G, Marcovecchio GE, Capuder K, Rath P, Luche N, Hagedorn EJ, Buoncompagni A, Royer-Bertrand B, Giliani S, Poliani PL, Imberti L, Dobbs K, Poulain FE, Martini A, Manis J, Linhardt RJ, Bosticardo M, Rosenzweig SD, Lee H, Puck JM, Zúñiga-Pflücker JC, Zon L, Park PW, Superti-Furga A, Notarangelo LD. EXTL3 mutations cause skeletal dysplasia, immune deficiency, and developmental delay. J Exp Med 2017; 214:623-637. [PMID: 28148688 PMCID: PMC5339678 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20161525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Volpi et al. demonstrate that hypomorphic EXTL3 mutations cause abnormalities of heparan sulfate composition, affect signaling in response to growth factors and cytokines, and perturb thymopoiesis, resulting in a novel genetic disease associating skeletal dysplasia, T cell immunodeficiency, and neurodevelopmental delay. We studied three patients with severe skeletal dysplasia, T cell immunodeficiency, and developmental delay. Whole-exome sequencing revealed homozygous missense mutations affecting exostosin-like 3 (EXTL3), a glycosyltransferase involved in heparan sulfate (HS) biosynthesis. Patient-derived fibroblasts showed abnormal HS composition and altered fibroblast growth factor 2 signaling, which was rescued by overexpression of wild-type EXTL3 cDNA. Interleukin-2–mediated STAT5 phosphorylation in patients’ lymphocytes was markedly reduced. Interbreeding of the extl3-mutant zebrafish (box) with Tg(rag2:green fluorescent protein) transgenic zebrafish revealed defective thymopoiesis, which was rescued by injection of wild-type human EXTL3 RNA. Targeted differentiation of patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells showed a reduced expansion of lymphohematopoietic progenitor cells and defects of thymic epithelial progenitor cell differentiation. These data identify EXTL3 mutations as a novel cause of severe immune deficiency with skeletal dysplasia and developmental delay and underline a crucial role of HS in thymopoiesis and skeletal and brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Volpi
- Unita' Operativa Pediatria 2, Istituto Giannina Gaslini, 16148 Genoa, Italy
| | - Yasuhiro Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Host Defenses, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Patrick M Brauer
- Department of Immunology, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S, Canada
| | - Ellen van Rooijen
- Stem Cell Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Atsuko Hayashida
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Anne Slavotinek
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Hye Sun Kuehn
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Maja Di Rocco
- Unit of Rare Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Istituto Giannina Gaslini, 16148 Genoa, Italy
| | - Carlo Rivolta
- Department of Computational Biology, Unit of Medical Genetics, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ileana Bortolomai
- San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy.,Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica, Milan Unit, 20138 Milan, Italy
| | - Likun Du
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Kerstin Felgentreff
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Lisa Ott de Bruin
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Kazutaka Hayashida
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - George Freedman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Genni Enza Marcovecchio
- San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Kelly Capuder
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Prisni Rath
- Tata Consultancy Services Innovation Labs, Telangana 500081, India
| | - Nicole Luche
- Division of Immunology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Elliott J Hagedorn
- Stem Cell Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | | | - Beryl Royer-Bertrand
- Department of Computational Biology, Unit of Medical Genetics, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.,Division of Genetic Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Giliani
- A. Nocivelli Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Pietro Luigi Poliani
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Luisa Imberti
- Centro di ricerca emato-oncologica AIL, Spedali Civili, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Kerry Dobbs
- Laboratory of Host Defenses, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Fabienne E Poulain
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208
| | - Alberto Martini
- Unita' Operativa Pediatria 2, Istituto Giannina Gaslini, 16148 Genoa, Italy
| | - John Manis
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Robert J Linhardt
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180
| | - Marita Bosticardo
- San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy, Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Sergio Damian Rosenzweig
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Hane Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Jennifer M Puck
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Juan Carlos Zúñiga-Pflücker
- Department of Immunology, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S, Canada
| | - Leonard Zon
- Stem Cell Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Pyong Woo Park
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Andrea Superti-Furga
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Luigi D Notarangelo
- Laboratory of Host Defenses, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892
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23
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Blanchette CR, Thackeray A, Perrat PN, Hekimi S, Bénard CY. Functional Requirements for Heparan Sulfate Biosynthesis in Morphogenesis and Nervous System Development in C. elegans. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1006525. [PMID: 28068429 PMCID: PMC5221758 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The regulation of cell migration is essential to animal development and physiology. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans shape the interactions of morphogens and guidance cues with their respective receptors to elicit appropriate cellular responses. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans consist of a protein core with attached heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains, which are synthesized by glycosyltransferases of the exostosin (EXT) family. Abnormal HS chain synthesis results in pleiotropic consequences, including abnormal development and tumor formation. In humans, mutations in either of the exostosin genes EXT1 and EXT2 lead to osteosarcomas or multiple exostoses. Complete loss of any of the exostosin glycosyltransferases in mouse, fish, flies and worms leads to drastic morphogenetic defects and embryonic lethality. Here we identify and study previously unavailable viable hypomorphic mutations in the two C. elegans exostosin glycosyltransferases genes, rib-1 and rib-2. These partial loss-of-function mutations lead to a severe reduction of HS levels and result in profound but specific developmental defects, including abnormal cell and axonal migrations. We find that the expression pattern of the HS copolymerase is dynamic during embryonic and larval morphogenesis, and is sustained throughout life in specific cell types, consistent with HSPGs playing both developmental and post-developmental roles. Cell-type specific expression of the HS copolymerase shows that HS elongation is required in both the migrating neuron and neighboring cells to coordinate migration guidance. Our findings provide insights into general principles underlying HSPG function in development. During animal development, cells and neurons navigate long distances to reach their final target destinations. Migrating cells are guided by extracellular molecular cues, and cellular responses to these cues are regulated by heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are proteins with long heparan sulfate polysaccharide chains attached. Here we identify and study previously unavailable viable mutants that disrupt the elongation of the heparan sulfate chains in the nematode C. elegans. Our analysis shows that these HS-chain-elongation mutations affect the development of the nervous system as they result in misguided migrations of neurons and axons. Furthermore, we find that heparan sulfate chain elongation occurs in numerous cell types during development and that the coordinated production of heparan sulfate proteoglycans, in both the migrating cell and neighboring tissues, ensures proper migration. Our findings highlight the critical roles of heparan sulfate proteoglycans in nervous system development and the evolutionary conservation of the molecular mechanisms driving guided migrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra R. Blanchette
- Department of Neurobiology, UMass Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrea Thackeray
- Department of Neurobiology, UMass Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Paola N. Perrat
- Department of Neurobiology, UMass Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Claire Y. Bénard
- Department of Neurobiology, UMass Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Quebec at Montreal, Montreal, Canada
- * E-mail: ,
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24
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Abstract
The zebrafish skeleton shares many similarities with human and other vertebrate skeletons. Over the past years, work in zebrafish has provided an extensive understanding of the basic developmental mechanisms and cellular pathways directing skeletal development and homeostasis. This review will focus on the cell biology of cartilage and bone and how the basic cellular processes within chondrocytes and osteocytes function to assemble the structural frame of a vertebrate body. We will discuss fundamental functions of skeletal cells in production and secretion of extracellular matrix and cellular activities leading to differentiation of progenitors to mature cells that make up the skeleton. We highlight important examples where findings in zebrafish provided direction for the search for genes causing human skeletal defects and also how zebrafish research has proven important for validating candidate human disease genes. The work we cover here illustrates utility of zebrafish in unraveling molecular mechanisms of cellular functions necessary to form and maintain a healthy skeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauryn N Luderman
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Gokhan Unlu
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Ela W Knapik
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.
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25
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Venero Galanternik M, Lush ME, Piotrowski T. Glypican4 modulates lateral line collective cell migration non cell-autonomously. Dev Biol 2016; 419:321-335. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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26
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Masu M. Proteoglycans and axon guidance: a new relationship between old partners. J Neurochem 2016; 139 Suppl 2:58-75. [PMID: 26709493 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Revised: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Neural circuits are formed with great precision during development. Accumulated evidence over the past three decades has demonstrated that growing axons are navigated toward their targets by the combined actions of attractants and repellents together with their receptors. It has long been known that proteoglycans, glycosylated proteins possessing covalently attached glycosaminoglycans, play a critical role in axon guidance; however, the molecular mechanisms by which proteoglycans regulate axon behaviors remain largely unknown. Glycosaminoglycans such as heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate are large linear polysaccharides composed of repeating disaccharide units that are highly modified by specific sulfation and epimerization. Recent biochemical and molecular biological studies have identified the enzymes that are involved in the biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycans. Interestingly, many mutants lacking glycosaminoglycan-synthesizing enzymes or proteoglycans in several model organisms show defects in specific nerve tract formation. In parallel, detailed biochemical studies have identified the molecular interactions between axon guidance molecules and glycosaminoglycans that have specific modification in their sugar chains. This review summarizes the structure and function of axon guidance molecules and glycosaminoglycans, and then tries to combine the knowledge from these studies to understand the role of proteoglycans from a new vantage point. Deciphering the sugar code is important for understanding the complicated nature of proteoglycans in axon guidance. Neural circuits are formed by the combined actions of axon guidance molecules. Proteoglycans play critical roles in regulating axon guidance through the interaction between signaling molecules and glycosaminoglycan chains attached to the core protein. This paper summarizes the structure and functions of axon guidance molecules and glycosaminoglycans and reviews the molecular mechanisms by which proteoglycans regulate axon guidance from a new vantage point. This article is part of the 60th Anniversary special issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Masu
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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27
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Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) have long been implicated in a wide range of cell-cell signaling and cell-matrix interactions, both in vitro and in vivo in invertebrate models. Although many of the genes that encode HSPG core proteins and the biosynthetic enzymes that generate and modify HSPG sugar chains have not yet been analyzed by genetics in vertebrates, recent studies have shown that HSPGs do indeed mediate a wide range of functions in early vertebrate development, for example during left-right patterning and in cardiovascular and neural development. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the various roles of HSPGs in these systems and explore the concept of an instructive heparan sulfate sugar code for modulating vertebrate development. Summary: This Review article examines the role of heparan sulfate proteoglycans in vertebrate development and explores the concept of an instructive 'sugar code' for modulating development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne E Poulain
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - H Joseph Yost
- University of Utah, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Department of Pediatrics, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
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28
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Panza P, Sitko AA, Maischein HM, Koch I, Flötenmeyer M, Wright GJ, Mandai K, Mason CA, Söllner C. The LRR receptor Islr2 is required for retinal axon routing at the vertebrate optic chiasm. Neural Dev 2015; 10:23. [PMID: 26492970 PMCID: PMC4618557 DOI: 10.1186/s13064-015-0050-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the visual system of most binocular vertebrates, the axons of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) diverge at the diencephalic midline and extend to targets on both ipsi- and contralateral sides of the brain. While a molecular mechanism explaining ipsilateral guidance decisions has been characterized, less is known of how RGC axons cross the midline. RESULTS Here, we took advantage of the zebrafish, in which all RGC axons project contralaterally at the optic chiasm, to characterize Islr2 as an RGC receptor required for complete retinal axon midline crossing. We used a systematic extracellular protein-protein interaction screening assay to identify two Vasorin paralogs, Vasna and Vasnb, as specific Islr2 ligands. Antibodies against Vasna and Vasnb reveal cellular populations surrounding the retinal axon pathway, suggesting the involvement of these proteins in guidance decisions made by axons of the optic nerve. Specifically, Vasnb marks the membranes of a cellular barricade located anteriorly to the optic chiasm, a structure termed the "glial knot" in higher vertebrates. Loss of function mutations in either vasorin paralog, individually or combined, however, do not exhibit an overt retinal axon projection phenotype, suggesting that additional midline factors, acting either independently or redundantly, compensate for their loss. Analysis of Islr2 knockout mice supports a scenario in which Islr2 controls the coherence of RGC axons through the ventral midline and optic tract. CONCLUSIONS Although stereotypic guidance of RGC axons at the vertebrate optic chiasm is controlled by multiple, redundant mechanisms, and despite the differences in ventral diencephalic tissue architecture, we identify a novel role for the LRR receptor Islr2 in ensuring proper axon navigation at the optic chiasm of both zebrafish and mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Panza
- Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Abteilung Genetik, Spemannstraße 35, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Austen A Sitko
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Hans-Martin Maischein
- Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Abteilung Genetik, Spemannstraße 35, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Present address: Max-Planck-Institut für Herz- und Lungenforschung, Abteilung Genetik der Entwicklung, Ludwigstraße 43, 61231, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Iris Koch
- Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Elektronenmikroskopie, Spemannstraße 35, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Matthias Flötenmeyer
- Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Elektronenmikroskopie, Spemannstraße 35, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gavin J Wright
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cell Surface Signalling Laboratory, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1HH, UK
| | - Kenji Mandai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0017, Japan
| | - Carol A Mason
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Christian Söllner
- Max-Planck-Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie, Abteilung Genetik, Spemannstraße 35, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
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29
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Murakami K, Tanaka T, Bando Y, Yoshida S. Nerve injury induces the expression of syndecan-1 heparan sulfate proteoglycan in primary sensory neurons. Neuroscience 2015; 300:338-50. [PMID: 26002314 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Revised: 04/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) have important functions in development of the central nervous system; however, their functions in nerve injury are not yet fully understood. We previously reported the expression of syndecan-1, a type of HSPG, in cranial motor neurons after nerve injury, suggesting the importance of syndecan-1 in the pathology of motor nerve injury. In this study, we examined the expression of syndecan-1, a type of HSPG, in primary sensory neurons after nerve injury in mice. Sciatic nerve axotomy strongly induced the expression of syndecan-1 in a subpopulation of injured dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, which were small in size and had CGRP- or isolectin B4-positive fibers. Syndecan-1 was also distributed in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord ipsilateral to the axotomy, and located on the membrane of axons in lamina II of the dorsal horn. Not only sciatic nerve axotomy, infraorbital nerve axotomy also induced the expression of syndecan-1 in trigeminal ganglion neurons. Moreover, syndecan-1 knockdown in cultured DRG neurons induced a shorter neurite extension. These results suggest that syndecan-1 expression in injured primary sensory neurons may have functional roles in nerve regeneration and synaptic plasticity, resulting in the development of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Murakami
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Japan.
| | - T Tanaka
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Japan
| | - Y Bando
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Japan
| | - S Yoshida
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Japan
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30
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Filipek-Górniok B, Carlsson P, Haitina T, Habicher J, Ledin J, Kjellén L. The NDST gene family in zebrafish: role of NDST1B in pharyngeal arch formation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119040. [PMID: 25767878 PMCID: PMC4359090 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans are ubiquitous components of the extracellular matrix and plasma membrane of metazoans. The sulfation pattern of the HS glycosaminoglycan chain is characteristic for each tissue and changes during development. The glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase (NDST) enzymes catalyze N-deacetylation and N-sulfation during HS biosynthesis and have a key role in designing the sulfation pattern. We here report on the presence of five NDST genes in zebrafish. Zebrafish ndst1a, ndst1b, ndst2a and ndst2b represent duplicated mammalian orthologues of NDST1 and NDST2 that arose through teleost specific genome duplication. Interestingly, the single zebrafish orthologue ndst3, is equally similar to tetrapod Ndst3 and Ndst4. It is likely that a local duplication in the common ancestor of lobe-finned fish and tetrapods gave rise to these two genes. All zebrafish Ndst genes showed distinct but partially overlapping expression patterns during embryonic development. Morpholino knockdown of ndst1b resulted in delayed development, craniofacial cartilage abnormalities, shortened body and pectoral fin length, resembling some of the features of the Ndst1 mouse knockout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Filipek-Górniok
- Dept. of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, PO Box 582, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Pernilla Carlsson
- Dept. of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, PO Box 582, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tatjana Haitina
- Dept. of Organismal Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18A, SE-752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Judith Habicher
- Dept. of Organismal Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18A, SE-752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Ledin
- Dept. of Organismal Biology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18A, SE-752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lena Kjellén
- Dept. of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, PO Box 582, SE-751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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31
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Venero Galanternik M, Kramer KL, Piotrowski T. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans Regulate Fgf Signaling and Cell Polarity during Collective Cell Migration. Cell Rep 2015; 10:414-428. [PMID: 25600875 PMCID: PMC4531098 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2014.12.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Collective cell migration is a highly regulated morphogenetic movement during embryonic development and cancer invasion that involves the precise orchestration and integration of cell-autonomous mechanisms and environmental signals. Coordinated lateral line primordium migration is controlled by the regulation of chemokine receptors via compartmentalized Wnt/β-catenin and fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) signaling. Analysis of mutations in two exostosin glycosyltransferase genes (extl3 and ext2) revealed that loss of heparan sulfate (HS) chains results in a failure of collective cell migration due to enhanced Fgf ligand diffusion and loss of Fgf signal transduction. Consequently, Wnt/β-catenin signaling is activated ectopically, resulting in the subsequent loss of the chemokine receptor cxcr7b. Disruption of HS proteoglycan (HSPG) function induces extensive, random filopodia formation, demonstrating that HSPGs are involved in maintaining cell polarity in collectively migrating cells. The HSPGs themselves are regulated by the Wnt/β-catenin and Fgf pathways and thus are integral components of the regulatory network that coordinates collective cell migration with organ specification and morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Venero Galanternik
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA; Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Kenneth L Kramer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Tatjana Piotrowski
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA; Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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32
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Abstract
One of the most fascinating questions in the field of neurobiology is to understand how neuronal connections are properly formed. During development, neurons extend axons that are guided along defined paths by attractive and repulsive cues to reach their brain target. Most of these guidance factors are regulated by heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), a family of cell-surface and extracellular core proteins with attached heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycans. The unique diversity and structural complexity of HS sugar chains, as well as the variety of core proteins, have been proposed to generate a complex "sugar code" essential for brain wiring. While the functions of HSPGs have been well characterized in C. elegans or Drosophila, relatively little is known about their roles in nervous system development in vertebrates. In this chapter, we describe the advantages and the different methods available to study the roles of HSPGs in axon guidance directly in vivo in zebrafish. We provide protocols for visualizing axons in vivo, including precise dye labeling and time-lapse imaging, and for disturbing the functions of HS-modifying enzymes and core proteins, including morpholino, DNA, or RNA injections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne E Poulain
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Coker Life Science Building, 715 Sumter street, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA,
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33
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Abstract
The visual system is beautifully crafted to transmit information of the external world to visual processing and cognitive centers in the brain. For visual information to be relayed to the brain, a series of axon pathfinding events must take place to ensure that the axons of retinal ganglion cells, the only neuronal cell type in the retina that sends axons out of the retina, find their way out of the eye to connect with targets in the brain. In the past few decades, the power of molecular and genetic tools, including the generation of genetically manipulated mouse lines, have multiplied our knowledge about the molecular mechanisms involved in the sculpting of the visual system. Here, we review major advances in our understanding of the mechanisms controlling the differentiation of RGCs, guidance of their axons from the retina to the primary visual centers, and the refinement processes essential for the establishment of topographic maps and eye-specific axon segregation. Human disorders, such as albinism and achiasmia, that impair RGC axon growth and guidance and, thus, the establishment of a fully functioning visual system will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Erskine
- School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Eloisa Herrera
- Instituto de Neurosciencias de Alicante, CSIC-UMH, San Juan de Alicante, Spain
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Bailey JNC, Yaspan BL, Pasquale LR, Hauser MA, Kang JH, Loomis SJ, Brilliant M, Budenz DL, Christen WG, Fingert J, Gaasterland D, Gaasterland T, Kraft P, Lee RK, Lichter PR, Liu Y, McCarty CA, Moroi SE, Richards JE, Realini T, Schuman JS, Scott WK, Singh K, Sit AJ, Vollrath D, Wollstein G, Zack DJ, Zhang K, Pericak-Vance MA, Allingham RR, Weinreb RN, Haines JL, Wiggs JL. Hypothesis-independent pathway analysis implicates GABA and acetyl-CoA metabolism in primary open-angle glaucoma and normal-pressure glaucoma. Hum Genet 2014; 133:1319-30. [PMID: 25037249 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-014-1468-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is a leading cause of blindness worldwide. Using genome-wide association single-nucleotide polymorphism data from the Glaucoma Genes and Environment study and National Eye Institute Glaucoma Human Genetics Collaboration comprising 3,108 cases and 3,430 controls, we assessed biologic pathways as annotated in the KEGG database for association with risk of POAG. After correction for genic overlap among pathways, we found 4 pathways, butanoate metabolism (hsa00650), hematopoietic cell lineage (hsa04640), lysine degradation (hsa00310) and basal transcription factors (hsa03022) related to POAG with permuted p < 0.001. In addition, the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) gene family was significantly associated with POAG (p < 0.001). In the POAG subset with normal-pressure glaucoma (NPG), the butanoate metabolism pathway was also significantly associated (p < 0.001) as well as the MAPK and Hedgehog signaling pathways (hsa04010 and hsa04340), glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis-heparan sulfate pathway (hsa00534) and the phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis pathway (hsa0400). The butanoate metabolism pathway overall, and specifically the aspects of the pathway that contribute to GABA and acetyl-CoA metabolism, was the only pathway significantly associated with both POAG and NPG. Collectively these results implicate GABA and acetyl-CoA metabolism in glaucoma pathogenesis, and suggest new potential therapeutic targets.
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Wiweger MI, de Andrea CE, Scheepstra KWF, Zhao Z, Hogendoorn PCW. Possible effects of EXT2 on mesenchymal differentiation--lessons from the zebrafish. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2014; 9:35. [PMID: 24628984 PMCID: PMC4004154 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1172-9-35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mutations in the EXT genes disrupt polymerisation of heparan sulphates (HS) and lead to the development of osteochondroma, an isolated/sporadic- or a multifocal/hereditary cartilaginous bone tumour. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a very powerful animal model which has shown to present the same cartilage phenotype that is commonly seen in mice model and patients with the rare hereditary syndrome, Multiple Osteochondroma (MO). Methods Zebrafish dackel (dak) mutant that carries a nonsense mutation in the ext2 gene was used in this study. A panel of molecular, morphological and biochemical analyses was used to assess at what step bone formation is affected and what mechanisms underlie changes in the bone formation in the ext2 mutant. Results During bone development in the ext2-/- zebrafish, chondrocytes fail to undergo terminal differentiation; and pre-osteoblasts do not differentiate toward osteoblasts. This inadequate osteogenesis coincides with increased deposition of lipids/fats along/in the vessels and premature adipocyte differentiation as shown by biochemical and molecular markers. Also, the ext2-null fish have a muscle phenotype, i.e. muscles are shorter and thicker. These changes coexist with misshapen bones. Normal expression of runx2 together with impaired expression of osterix and its master regulator - xbp1 suggest that unfolded protein responses might play a role in MO pathogenesis. Conclusions Heparan sulphates are required for terminal differentiation of the cartilaginous template and consecutive formation of a scaffold that is needed for further bone development. HS are also needed for mesenchymal cell differentiation. At least one copy of ext2 is needed to maintain the balance between bone and fat lineages, but homozygous loss of the ext2 function leads to an imbalance between cartilage, bone and fat lineages. Normal expression of runx2 and impaired expression of osterix in the ext2-/- fish indicate that HS are required by osteoblast precursors for their further differentiation towards osteoblastic lineage. Lower expression of xbp1, a master regulator of osterix, suggests that HS affect the ‘unfolded protein response’, a pathway that is known to control bone formation and lipid metabolism. Our observations in the ext2-null fish might explain the musculoskeletal defects that are often observed in MO patients.
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Abstract
Roundabout receptors (Robo) and their Slit ligands were discovered in the 1990s and found to be key players in axon guidance. Slit was initially described s an extracellular matrix protein that was expressed by midline glia in Drosophila. A few years later, it was shown that, in vertebrates and invertebrates, Slits acted as chemorepellents for axons crossing the midline. Robo proteins were originally discovered in Drosophila in a mutant screen for genes involved in the regulation of midline crossing. This ligand-receptor pair has since been implicated in a variety of other neuronal and non-neuronal processes ranging from cell migration to angiogenesis, tumourigenesis and even organogenesis of tissues such as kidneys, lungs and breasts.
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van Wijk XM, Thijssen VL, Lawrence R, van den Broek SA, Dona M, Naidu N, Oosterhof A, van de Westerlo EM, Kusters LJ, Khaled Y, Jokela TA, Nowak-Sliwinska P, Kremer H, Stringer SE, Griffioen AW, van Wijk E, van Delft FL, van Kuppevelt TH. Interfering with UDP-GlcNAc metabolism and heparan sulfate expression using a sugar analogue reduces angiogenesis. ACS Chem Biol 2013; 8:2331-8. [PMID: 23972127 DOI: 10.1021/cb4004332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS), a long linear polysaccharide, is implicated in various steps of tumorigenesis, including angiogenesis. We successfully interfered with HS biosynthesis using a peracetylated 4-deoxy analogue of the HS constituent GlcNAc and studied the compound's metabolic fate and its effect on angiogenesis. The 4-deoxy analogue was activated intracellularly into UDP-4-deoxy-GlcNAc, and HS expression was inhibited up to ∼96% (IC50 = 16 μM). HS chain size was reduced, without detectable incorporation of the 4-deoxy analogue, likely due to reduced levels of UDP-GlcNAc and/or inhibition of glycosyltransferase activity. Comprehensive gene expression analysis revealed reduced expression of genes regulated by HS binding growth factors such as FGF-2 and VEGF. Cellular binding and signaling of these angiogenic factors was inhibited. Microinjection in zebrafish embryos strongly reduced HS biosynthesis, and angiogenesis was inhibited in both zebrafish and chicken model systems. All of these data identify 4-deoxy-GlcNAc as a potent inhibitor of HS synthesis, which hampers pro-angiogenic signaling and neo-vessel formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Victor L. Thijssen
- Angiogenesis
Laboratory, Department of Medical Oncology, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Tiina A. Jokela
- Institute
of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Patrycja Nowak-Sliwinska
- Angiogenesis
Laboratory, Department of Medical Oncology, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Institute
of Bio-Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Sally E. Stringer
- Cardiovascular
Research Group, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Arjan W. Griffioen
- Angiogenesis
Laboratory, Department of Medical Oncology, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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The exostosin family: proteins with many functions. Matrix Biol 2013; 35:25-33. [PMID: 24128412 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfates are complex sulfated molecules found in abundance at cell surfaces and in the extracellular matrix. They bind to and influence the activity of a variety of molecules like growth factors, proteases and morphogens and are thus involved in various cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. The mammalian EXT proteins have glycosyltransferase activities relevant for HS chain polymerization, however their exact role in this process is still confusing. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the biochemical activities and some proposed functions of the members of the EXT protein family and their roles in human disease.
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Poulain FE, Chien CB. Proteoglycan-mediated axon degeneration corrects pretarget topographic sorting errors. Neuron 2013; 78:49-56. [PMID: 23583107 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Proper arrangement of axonal projections into topographic maps is crucial for brain function, especially in sensory systems. An important mechanism for map formation is pretarget axon sorting, in which topographic ordering of axons appears in tracts before axons reach their target, but this process remains poorly understood. Here, we show that selective axon degeneration is used as a correction mechanism to eliminate missorted axons in the optic tract during retinotectal development in zebrafish. Retinal axons are not precisely ordered during initial pathfinding but become corrected later, with missorted axons selectively fragmenting and degenerating. We further show that heparan sulfate is required non-cell-autonomously to correct missorted axons and that restoring its synthesis at late stages in a deficient mutant is sufficient to restore topographic sorting. These findings uncover a function for developmental axon degeneration in ordering axonal projections and identify heparan sulfate as a key regulator of that process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne E Poulain
- University of Utah, Neurobiology and Anatomy Department, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA.
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Wang F, Julien DP, Sagasti A. Journey to the skin: Somatosensory peripheral axon guidance and morphogenesis. Cell Adh Migr 2013; 7:388-94. [PMID: 23670092 PMCID: PMC3739816 DOI: 10.4161/cam.25000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The peripheral axons of vertebrate tactile somatosensory neurons travel long distances from ganglia just outside the central nervous system to the skin. Once in the skin these axons form elaborate terminals whose organization must be regionally patterned to detect and accurately localize different kinds of touch stimuli. This review describes key studies that identified choice points for somatosensory axon growth cones and the extrinsic molecular cues that function at each of those steps. While much has been learned in the past 20 years about the guidance of these axons, there is still much to be learned about how the peripheral axons of different kinds of somatosensory neurons adopt different trajectories and form specific terminal structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Wang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA USA
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Abstract
To form complex neuronal networks, growth cones use intermediate targets as guideposts on the path to more distant targets. In the developing zebrafish (Danio rerio), the muscle pioneers (MPs) are intermediate targets for primary motor neurons (PMNs) that innervate the trunk musculature. The mechanisms regulating PMN axon guidance at the MPs are not fully understood. We have identified a new member of the Notum family in zebrafish, Notum 2, which is expressed exclusively in the MPs during primary motor innervation. While homologs of Notum, including zebrafish Notum 1a, negatively regulate the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, we discovered a novel function of Notum 2 in regulating motor axon guidance. Knockdown of Notum 2 resulted in a failure of caudal primary (CaP) axons to migrate beyond the MPs, despite the proper specification of the intermediate target. In contrast, mosaic Notum 2 overexpression induced branching of PMN axons. This effect is specific to Notum 2, as overexpression of Notum 1a does not affect PMN axon trajectory. Ectopic expression of Notum 2 by cells contacting the growing CaP axon induced the highest frequency of branching, suggesting that localized Notum 2 expression affects axon behavior. We propose a model where Notum 2 expression at the MPs provides a cue to release CaP motor axons from their intermediate targets, allowing growth cones to proceed to secondary targets in the ventral muscle. This work demonstrates an unexpected role for a Notum homolog in regulating growth cone migration, separate from the well established functions of other Notum homologs in Wnt signaling.
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Simpson HD, Kita EM, Scott EK, Goodhill GJ. A quantitative analysis of branching, growth cone turning, and directed growth in zebrafish retinotectal axon guidance. J Comp Neurol 2013; 521:1409-29. [DOI: 10.1002/cne.23248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Cui H, Freeman C, Jacobson GA, Small DH. Proteoglycans in the central nervous system: role in development, neural repair, and Alzheimer's disease. IUBMB Life 2013; 65:108-20. [PMID: 23297096 DOI: 10.1002/iub.1118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs) are major components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix and play critical roles in development and maintenance of the central nervous system (CNS). PGs are a family of proteins, all of which contain a core protein to which glycosaminoglycan side chains are covalently attached. PGs possess diverse physiological roles, particularly in neural development, and are also implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The main functions of PGs in the CNS are reviewed as are the roles of PGs in brain injury and in the development or treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Cui
- Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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Zimering MB, Moritz TE, Donnelly RJ. Anti-neurotrophic effects from autoantibodies in adult diabetes having primary open angle glaucoma or dementia. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2013; 4:58. [PMID: 23720653 PMCID: PMC3654220 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2013.00058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To test for anti-endothelial and anti-neurotrophic effects from autoantibodies in subsets of diabetes having open-angle glaucoma, dementia, or control subjects. METHODS Protein-A eluates from plasma of 20 diabetic subjects having glaucoma or suspects and 34 age-matched controls were tested for effects on neurite outgrowth in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells or endothelial cell survival. The mechanism of the diabetic glaucoma autoantibodies' neurite-inhibitory effect was investigated in co-incubations with the selective Rho kinase inhibitor Y27632 or the sulfated proteoglycan synthesis inhibitor sodium chlorate. Stored protein-A eluates from certain diabetic glaucoma or dementia subjects which contained long-lasting, highly stable cell inhibitory substances were characterized using mass spectrometry and amino acid sequencing. RESULTS Diabetic primary open angle glaucoma (POAG) or suspects (n = 20) or diabetic dementia (n = 3) autoantibodies caused significantly greater mean inhibition of neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells (p < 0.0001) compared to autoantibodies in control diabetic (n = 24) or non-diabetic (n = 10) subjects without glaucoma (p < 0.01). Neurite inhibition by the diabetic glaucoma autoantibodies was completely abolished by 10 μM concentrations of Y27632 (n = 4). It was substantially reduced by 30 mM concentrations of sodium chlorate (n = 4). Peak, long-lasting activity survived storage ×5 years at 0-4°C and was associated with a restricted subtype of Ig kappa light chain. Diabetic glaucoma or dementia autoantibodies (n = 5) caused contraction and process retraction in quiescent cerebral cortical astrocytes effects which were blocked by 5 μM concentrations of Y27632. CONCLUSION These data suggest that autoantibodies in subsets of adult diabetes having POAG (glaucoma suspects) and/or dementia inhibit neurite outgrowth and promote a reactive astrocyte morphology by a mechanism which may involve activation of the RhoA/p160 ROCK signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark B. Zimering
- Medical Service, New Jersey Health Care System, Department of Veterans AffairsLyons, NJ, USA
- Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New JerseyNew Brunswick, NJ, USA
- *Correspondence: Mark B. Zimering, Medical Service 111, Veterans Affairs New Jersey Healthcare System, Lyons, NJ 07939, USA. e-mail:
| | - Thomas E. Moritz
- Cooperative Study Coordinating Center, Hines Veterans HospitalHines, IL, USA
| | - Robert J. Donnelly
- Molecular Resource Facility, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical SchoolNewark, NJ, USA
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Murakami K, Yoshida S. Nerve injury induces the expression of syndecan-1 heparan sulfate proteoglycan in peripheral motor neurons. Neurosci Lett 2012; 527:28-33. [PMID: 22944346 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 08/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans play important roles in embryogenesis, including the development of the central nervous system. However, their function in nerve regeneration is not yet understood. We previously reported that nerve injury induces the expression of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans and syndecan-1, a heparan sulfate proteoglycan, in injured hypoglossal motor neurons. In this study, we examined the expression of syndecan family members, including syndecan-1, in injured hypoglossal motor neurons after hypoglossal nerve axotomy. We could not detect any changes in expression after axotomy, except for syndecan-1. The expression of syndecan-1 was markedly increased on post-operative day 7. Syndecan-1 was localized not only in the cell bodies of hypoglossal motor neurons, but also in the injured hypoglossal nerve, and it accumulated in the terminals of regenerating fibers. Similarly, facial nerve axotomy and vagus nerve axotomy induced the expression of syndecan-1 in the facial nucleus, dorsal nucleus of vagus and ambiguous nucleus, respectively. However, sciatic nerve axotomy induced very little syndecan-1 expression in injured spinal motor neurons. These results suggest that syndecan-1 may have a crucial role in the survival of injured motor neurons and in nerve regeneration after injury. Our observations also reveal the diversity of peripheral motor neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Murakami
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Japan.
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Holmborn K, Habicher J, Kasza Z, Eriksson AS, Filipek-Gorniok B, Gopal S, Couchman JR, Ahlberg PE, Wiweger M, Spillmann D, Kreuger J, Ledin J. On the roles and regulation of chondroitin sulfate and heparan sulfate in zebrafish pharyngeal cartilage morphogenesis. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:33905-16. [PMID: 22869369 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.401646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study addresses the roles of heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans and chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycans in the development of zebrafish pharyngeal cartilage structures. uxs1 and b3gat3 mutants, predicted to have impaired biosynthesis of both HS and CS because of defective formation of the common proteoglycan linkage tetrasaccharide were analyzed along with ext2 and extl3 mutants, predicted to have defective HS polymerization. Notably, the effects on HS and CS biosynthesis in the respective mutant strains were shown to differ from what had been hypothesized. In uxs1 and b3gat3 mutant larvae, biosynthesis of CS was shown to be virtually abolished, whereas these mutants still were capable of synthesizing 50% of the HS produced in control larvae. extl3 and ext2 mutants on the other hand were shown to synthesize reduced amounts of hypersulfated HS. Further, extl3 mutants produced higher levels of CS than control larvae, whereas morpholino-mediated suppression of csgalnact1/csgalnact2 resulted in increased HS biosynthesis. Thus, the balance of the Extl3 and Csgalnact1/Csgalnact2 proteins influences the HS/CS ratio. A characterization of the pharyngeal cartilage element morphologies in the single mutant strains, as well as in ext2;uxs1 double mutants, was conducted. A correlation between HS and CS production and phenotypes was found, such that impaired HS biosynthesis was shown to affect chondrocyte intercalation, whereas impaired CS biosynthesis inhibited formation of the extracellular matrix surrounding chondrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Holmborn
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Flanagan-Steet HR, Steet R. "Casting" light on the role of glycosylation during embryonic development: insights from zebrafish. Glycoconj J 2012; 30:33-40. [PMID: 22638861 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-012-9390-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) remains a versatile model organism for the investigation of early development and organogenesis, and has emerged as a valuable platform for drug discovery and toxicity evaluation [1-6]. Harnessing the genetic power and experimental accessibility of this system, three decades of research have identified key genes and pathways that control the development of multiple organ systems and tissues, including the heart, kidney, and craniofacial cartilage, as well as the hematopoietic, vascular, and central and peripheral nervous systems [7-31]. In addition to their application in large mutagenic screens, zebrafish has been used to model a variety of diseases such as diabetes, polycystic kidney disease, muscular dystrophy and cancer [32-36]. As this work continues to intersect with cellular pathways and processes such as lipid metabolism, glycosylation and vesicle trafficking, investigators are often faced with the challenge of determining the degree to which these pathways are functionally conserved in zebrafish. While they share a high degree of genetic homology with mouse and human, the manner in which cellular pathways are regulated in zebrafish during early development, and the differences in the organ physiology, warrant consideration before functional studies can be effectively interpreted and compared with other vertebrate systems. This point is particularly relevant for glycosylation since an understanding of the glycan diversity and the mechanisms that control glycan biosynthesis during zebrafish embryogenesis (as in many organisms) is still developing.Nonetheless, a growing number of studies in zebrafish have begun to cast light on the functional roles of specific classes of glycans during organ and tissue development. While many of the initial efforts involved characterizing identified mutants in a number of glycosylation pathways, the use of reverse genetic approaches to directly model glycosylation-related disorders is now increasingly popular. In this review, the glycomics of zebrafish and the developmental expression of their glycans will be briefly summarized along with recent chemical biology approaches to visualize certain classes of glycans within developing embryos. Work regarding the role of protein-bound glycans and glycosaminoglycans (GAG) in zebrafish development and organogenesis will also be highlighted. Lastly, future opportunities and challenges in the expanding field of zebrafish glycobiology are discussed.
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Imai T, Sakano H. Axon-axon interactions in neuronal circuit assembly: lessons from olfactory map formation. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 34:1647-54. [PMID: 22103421 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07817.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
During the development of the nervous system, neurons often connect axons and dendrites over long distances, which are navigated by chemical cues. During the past few decades, studies on axon guidance have focused on chemical cues provided by the axonal target or intermediate target. However, recent studies have shed light on the roles and mechanisms underlying axon-axon interactions during neuronal circuit assembly. The roles of axon-axon interactions are best exemplified in recent studies on olfactory map formation in vertebrates. Pioneer-follower interaction is essential for the axonal pathfinding process. Pre-target axon sorting establishes the anterior-posterior map order. The temporal order of axonal projection is converted to dorsal-ventral topography with the aid of secreted molecules provided by early-arriving axons. An activity-dependent process to form a discrete map also depends on axon sorting. Thus, an emerging principle of olfactory map formation is the 'self-organisation' of axons rather than the 'lock and key' matching between axons and targets. In this review, we discuss how axon-axon interactions contribute to neuronal circuit assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Imai
- Laboratory for Sensory Circuit Formation, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, 2-2-3 Minatojima-Minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan.
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Abstract
'Evo-devo', an interdisciplinary field based on developmental biology, includes studies on the evolutionary processes leading to organ morphologies and functions. One fascinating theme in evo-devo is how fish fins evolved into tetrapod limbs. Studies by many scientists, including geneticists, mathematical biologists, and paleontologists, have led to the idea that fins and limbs are homologous organs; now it is the job of developmental biologists to integrate these data into a reliable scenario for the mechanism of fin-to-limb evolution. Here, we describe the fin-to-limb transition based on key recent developmental studies from various research fields that describe mechanisms that may underlie the development of fins, limb-like fins, and limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohru Yano
- Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aobayama Aoba-ku, Sendai, Japan.
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LAR receptor tyrosine phosphatases and HSPGs guide peripheral sensory axons to the skin. Curr Biol 2012; 22:373-82. [PMID: 22326027 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2011] [Revised: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Peripheral axons of somatosensory neurons innervate the skin early in development to detect touch stimuli. Embryological experiments had suggested that the skin produces guidance cues that attract sensory axons, but neither the attractants nor their neuronal receptors had previously been identified. RESULTS To investigate peripheral axon navigation to the skin, we combined live imaging of developing zebrafish Rohon-Beard (RB) neurons with molecular loss-of-function manipulations. Simultaneously knocking down two members of the leukocyte antigen-related (LAR) family of receptor tyrosine phosphatases expressed in RB neurons, or inhibiting their function with dominant-negative proteins, misrouted peripheral axons to internal tissues. Time-lapse imaging indicated that peripheral axon guidance, rather than outgrowth or maintenance, was defective in LAR-deficient neurons. Peripheral axons displayed a similar misrouting phenotype in mutants defective in heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) production and avoided regions in which HSPGs were locally degraded. CONCLUSIONS HSPGs and LAR family receptors are required for sensory axon guidance to the skin. Together, our results support a model in which peripheral HSPGs are attractive ligands for LAR receptors on RB neurons.
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