Epidermal cells are the primary phagocytes in the fragmentation and clearance of degenerating dendrites in Drosophila

Phagocytosis-driven neurodegeneration through opposing roles of an ABC transporter in neurons and phagocytes

Lipid homeostasis is critical to neuronal survival. ATP-binding cassette A (ABCA) proteins are lipid transporters associated with neurodegenerative diseases. How ABCA transporters regulate lipid homeostasis in neurodegeneration is an outstanding question. Here we report that the Drosophila ABCA protein engulfment ABC transporter in the ovary (Eato) regulates phagocytosis-dependent neurodegeneration by playing opposing roles in neurons and phagocytes: In neurons, Eato prevents dendrites and axons from being attacked by neighboring phagocytes; in phagocytes, Eato sensitizes the cell for detecting neurons as engulfment targets. Thus, Eato deficiency in neurons alone causes phagocytosis-dependent neurite degeneration, but additional Eato loss from phagocytes suppresses the neurite degeneration. Mechanistically, Eato functions by removing the eat-me signal phosphatidylserine from the cell surface in both neurons and phagocytes. Multiple human and worm ABCA homologs can rescue Eato loss in phagocytes but not in neurons, suggesting both conserved and cell type-specific activities of ABCA proteins. These results imply possible mechanisms of neuron-phagocyte interactions in neurodegenerative diseases.

Glia control experience-dependent plasticity in an olfactory critical period

Sensory experience during developmental critical periods has lifelong consequences for circuit function and behavior, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms through which experience causes these changes are not well understood. The Drosophila antennal lobe houses synapses between olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and downstream projection neurons (PNs) in stereotyped glomeruli. Many glomeruli exhibit structural plasticity in response to early-life odor exposure, indicating a general sensitivity of the fly olfactory circuitry to early sensory experience. We recently found that glia shape antennal lobe development in young adults, leading us to ask if glia also drive experience-dependent plasticity during this period. Here, we define a critical period for structural and functional plasticity of OSN-PN synapses in the ethyl butyrate (EB)-sensitive glomerulus VM7. EB exposure for the first 2 days post-eclosion drives large-scale reductions in glomerular volume, presynapse number, and post- synaptic activity. Crucially, pruning during the critical period has long-term consequences for circuit function since both OSN-PN synapse number and spontaneous activity of PNs remain persistently decreased following early-life odor exposure. The highly conserved engulfment receptor Draper is required for this critical period plasticity as ensheathing glia upregulate Draper, invade the VM7 glomerulus, and phagocytose OSN presynaptic terminals in response to critical-period EB exposure. Loss of Draper fully suppresses the morphological and physiological consequences of critical period odor exposure, arguing that phagocytic glia engulf intact synaptic terminals. These data demonstrate experience-dependent pruning of synapses and argue that Drosophila olfactory circuitry is a powerful model for defining the function of glia in critical period plasticity.

Glial-derived TNF/Eiger signaling promotes somatosensory neurite sculpting

The selective elimination of inappropriate projections is essential for sculpting neural circuits during development. The class IV dendritic arborization (C4da) sensory neurons of Drosophila remodel the dendritic branches during metamorphosis. Glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS), are required for programmed axonal pruning of mushroom body (MB) γ neurons during metamorphosis in Drosophila. However, it is entirely unknown whether the glial cells are involved in controlling the neurite pruning of C4da sensory neurons. Here, we show that glial deletion of Eiger (Egr), orthologous to mammalian tumor necrosis factor TNF superfamily ligand, results in dendrite remodeling deficiency of Drosophila C4da sensory neurons. Moreover, the attenuation of neuronal Wengen (Wgn) and Grindelwald (Grnd), the receptors for TNF ligands, is also examined for defects in dendrite remodeling. We further discover that Wgn and Grnd facilitate dendrite elimination through the JNK Signaling. Overall, our findings demonstrate that glial-derived Egr signal links to the neuronal receptor Wgn/Grnd, activating the JNK signaling pathway and promoting developmental neuronal remodeling. Remarkably, our findings reveal a crucial role of peripheral glia in dendritic pruning of C4da neurons.

Developmental and age-related synapse elimination is mediated by glial Croquemort

Neurons and glia work together to dynamically regulate neural circuit assembly and maintenance. In this study, we show Drosophila exhibit large-scale synapse formation and elimination as part of normal CNS circuit maturation, and that glia use conserved molecules to regulate these processes. Using a high throughput ELISA-based in vivo screening assay, we identify new glial genes that regulate synapse numbers in Drosophila in vivo, including the scavenger receptor ortholog Croquemort (Crq). Crq acts as an essential regulator of glial-dependent synapse elimination during development, with glial Crq loss leading to excess CNS synapses and progressive seizure susceptibility in adults. Loss of Crq in glia also prevents age-related synaptic loss in the adult brain. This work provides new insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie synapse development and maintenance across the lifespan, and identifies glial Crq as a key regulator of these processes.

Glia control experience-dependent plasticity in an olfactory critical period

Sensory experience during developmental critical periods has lifelong consequences for circuit function and behavior, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms through which experience causes these changes are not well understood. The Drosophila antennal lobe houses synapses between olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and downstream projection neurons (PNs) in stereotyped glomeruli. Many glomeruli exhibit structural plasticity in response to early-life odor exposure, indicating a general sensitivity of the fly olfactory circuitry to early sensory experience. We recently found that glia shape antennal lobe development in young adults, leading us to ask if glia also drive experience-dependent plasticity during this period. Here we define a critical period for structural and functional plasticity of OSN-PN synapses in the ethyl butyrate (EB)-sensitive glomerulus VM7. EB exposure for the first two days post-eclosion drives large-scale reductions in glomerular volume, presynapse number, and post-synaptic activity. Crucially, pruning during the critical period has long-term consequences for circuit function since both OSN-PN synapse number and spontaneous activity of PNs remain persistently decreased following early-life odor exposure. The highly conserved engulfment receptor Draper is required for this critical period plasticity as ensheathing glia upregulate Draper, invade the VM7 glomerulus, and phagocytose OSN presynaptic terminals in response to critical-period EB exposure. Loss of Draper fully suppresses the morphological and physiological consequences of critical period odor exposure, arguing that phagocytic glia engulf intact synaptic terminals. These data demonstrate experience-dependent pruning of synapses and argue that Drosophila olfactory circuitry is a powerful model for defining the function of glia in critical period plasticity.

RABR-1, an atypical Rab-related GTPase, cell-nonautonomously restricts somatosensory dendrite branching

Neurons are highly polarized cells with dendrites and axons. Dendrites, which receive sensory information or input from other neurons, often display elaborately branched morphologies. While mechanisms that promote dendrite branching have been widely studied, less is known about the mechanisms that restrict branching. Using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we identify rabr-1 (for Rab-related gene 1) as a factor that restricts branching of the elaborately branched dendritic trees of PVD and FLP somatosensory neurons. Animals mutant for rabr-1 show excessively branched dendrites throughout development and into adulthood in areas where the dendrites overlay epidermal tissues. Phylogenetic analyses show that RABR-1 displays similarity to small GTPases of the Rab-type, although based on sequence alone, no clear vertebrate ortholog of RABR-1 can be identified. We find that rabr-1 is expressed and can function in epidermal tissues, suggesting that rabr-1 restricts dendritic branching cell-nonautonomously. Genetic experiments further indicate that for the formation of ectopic branches rabr-1 mutants require the genes of the Menorin pathway, which have been previously shown to mediate dendrite morphogenesis of somatosensory neurons. A translational reporter for RABR-1 reveals a subcellular localization to punctate, perinuclear structures, which correlates with endosomal and autophagosomal markers, but anticorrelates with lysosomal markers suggesting an amphisomal character. Point mutations in rabr-1 analogous to key residues of small GTPases suggest that rabr-1 functions in a GTP-bound form independently of GTPase activity. Taken together, rabr-1 encodes for an atypical small GTPase of the Rab-type that cell-nonautonomously restricts dendritic branching of somatosensory neurons, likely independently of GTPase activity.

Galectins induced from hemocytes bridge phosphatidylserine and N-glycosylated Drpr/CED-1 receptor during dendrite pruning

During neuronal pruning, phagocytes engulf shed cellular debris to avoid inflammation and maintain tissue homeostasis. How phagocytic receptors recognize degenerating neurites had been unclear. Here, we identify two glucosyltransferases Alg8 and Alg10 of the N-glycosylation pathway required for dendrite fragmentation and clearance through genetic screen. The scavenger receptor Draper (Drpr) is N-glycosylated with complex- or hybrid-type N-glycans that interact specifically with galectins. We also identify the galectins Crouching tiger (Ctg) and Hidden dragon (Hdg) that interact with N-glycosylated Drpr and function in dendrite pruning via the Drpr pathway. Ctg and Hdg are required in hemocytes for expression and function, and are induced during dendrite injury to localize to injured dendrites through specific interaction with exposed phosphatidylserine (PS) on the surface membrane of injured dendrites. Thus, the galectins Ctg and Hdg bridge the interaction between PS and N-glycosylated Drpr, leading to the activation of phagocytosis.

Recent progress in dendritic pruning of Drosophila C4da sensory neurons

The brain can adapt to changes in the environment through alterations in the number and structure of synapses. During embryonic and early postnatal stages, the synapses in the brain undergo rapid expansion and interconnections to form circuits. However, many of these synaptic connections are redundant or incorrect. Neurite pruning is a conserved process that occurs during both vertebrate and invertebrate development. It requires precise spatiotemporal control of local degradation of cellular components, comprising cytoskeletons and membranes, refines neuronal circuits, and ensures the precise connectivity required for proper function. The Drosophila's class IV dendritic arborization (C4da) sensory neuron has a well-characterized architecture and undergoes dendrite-specific sculpting, making it a valuable model for unravelling the intricate regulatory mechanisms underlie dendritic pruning. In this review, I attempt to provide an overview of the present state of research on dendritic pruning in C4da sensory neurons, as well as potential functional mechanisms in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Impairment of the Glial Phagolysosomal System Drives Prion-Like Propagation in a Drosophila Model of Huntington's Disease

Protein misfolding, aggregation, and spread through the brain are primary drivers of neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis. Phagocytic glia are responsible for regulating the load of pathological proteins in the brain, but emerging evidence suggests that glia may also act as vectors for aggregate spread. Accumulation of protein aggregates could compromise the ability of glia to eliminate toxic materials from the brain by disrupting efficient degradation in the phagolysosomal system. A better understanding of phagocytic glial cell deficiencies in the disease state could help to identify novel therapeutic targets for multiple neurological disorders. Here, we report that mutant huntingtin (mHTT) aggregates impair glial responsiveness to injury and capacity to degrade neuronal debris in male and female adult Drosophila expressing the gene that causes Huntington's disease (HD). mHTT aggregate formation in neurons impairs engulfment and clearance of injured axons and causes accumulation of phagolysosomes in glia. Neuronal mHTT expression induces upregulation of key innate immunity and phagocytic genes, some of which were found to regulate mHTT aggregate burden in the brain. A forward genetic screen revealed Rab10 as a novel component of Draper-dependent phagocytosis that regulates mHTT aggregate transmission from neurons to glia. These data suggest that glial phagocytic defects enable engulfed mHTT aggregates to evade lysosomal degradation and acquire prion-like characteristics. Together, our findings uncover new mechanisms that enhance our understanding of the beneficial and harmful effects of phagocytic glia in HD and other neurodegenerative diseases.

The CD36 scavenger receptor Bez regulates lipid redistribution from fat body to ovaries in Drosophila

Lipid distribution in an organism is mediated by the interplay between lipoprotein particles, lipoprotein receptors and class B scavenger receptors of the CD36 family. CD36 is a multifunctional protein mediating lipid uptake, mobilization and signaling at the plasma membrane and inside of the cell. The CD36 protein family has 14 members in Drosophila melanogaster, which allows for the differentiated analysis of their functions. Here, we unravel a role for the so far uncharacterized scavenger receptor Bez in lipid export from Drosophila adipocytes. Bez shares the lipid binding residue with CD36 and is expressed at the plasma membrane of the embryonic, larval and adult fat body. Bez loss of function lowers the organismal availability of storage lipids and blocks the maturation of egg chambers in ovaries. We demonstrate that Bez interacts with the APOB homolog Lipophorin at the plasma membrane of adipocytes and trace the Bez-dependent transfer of an alkyne-labeled fatty acid from adipocytes to Lipophorin. Our study demonstrates how lipids are distributed by scavenger receptor-lipoprotein interplay and contribute to the metabolic control of development.

Interplay between autophagy and CncC regulates dendrite pruning in Drosophila

Autophagy is essential for the turnover of damaged organelles and long-lived proteins. It is responsible for many biological processes such as maintaining brain functions and aging. Impaired autophagy is often linked to neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases in humans. However, the role of autophagy in neuronal pruning during development remains poorly understood. Here, we report that autophagy regulates dendrite-specific pruning of ddaC sensory neurons in parallel to local caspase activation. Impaired autophagy causes the formation of ubiquitinated protein aggregates in ddaC neurons, dependent on the autophagic receptor Ref(2)P. Furthermore, the metabolic regulator AMP-activated protein kinase and the insulin-target of rapamycin pathway act upstream to regulate autophagy during dendrite pruning. Importantly, autophagy is required to activate the transcription factor CncC (Cap "n" collar isoform C), thereby promoting dendrite pruning. Conversely, CncC also indirectly affects autophagic activity via proteasomal degradation, as impaired CncC results in the inhibition of autophagy through sequestration of Atg8a into ubiquitinated protein aggregates. Thus, this study demonstrates the important role of autophagy in activating CncC prior to dendrite pruning, and further reveals an interplay between autophagy and CncC in neuronal pruning.

Impairment of the glial phagolysosomal system drives prion-like propagation in a Drosophila model of Huntington's disease

Protein misfolding, aggregation, and spread through the brain are primary drivers of neurodegenerative diseases pathogenesis. Phagocytic glia are responsible for regulating the load of pathogenic protein aggregates in the brain, but emerging evidence suggests that glia may also act as vectors for aggregate spread. Accumulation of protein aggregates could compromise the ability of glia to eliminate toxic materials from the brain by disrupting efficient degradation in the phagolysosomal system. A better understanding of phagocytic glial cell deficiencies in the disease state could help to identify novel therapeutic targets for multiple neurological disorders. Here, we report that mutant huntingtin (mHTT) aggregates impair glial responsiveness to injury and capacity to degrade neuronal debris in male and female adult Drosophila expressing the gene that causes Huntington's disease (HD). mHTT aggregate formation in neurons impairs engulfment and clearance of injured axons and causes accumulation of phagolysosomes in glia. Neuronal mHTT expression induces upregulation of key innate immunity and phagocytic genes, some of which were found to regulate mHTT aggregate burden in the brain. Finally, a forward genetic screen revealed Rab10 as a novel component of Draper-dependent phagocytosis that regulates mHTT aggregate transmission from neurons to glia. These data suggest that glial phagocytic defects enable engulfed mHTT aggregates to evade lysosomal degradation and acquire prion-like characteristics. Together, our findings reveal new mechanisms that enhance our understanding of the beneficial and potentially harmful effects of phagocytic glia in HD and potentially other neurodegenerative diseases.

Droj2 Facilitates Somatosensory Neurite Sculpting via GTP-Binding Protein Arf102F in Drosophila

Developmental remodeling of neurite is crucial for the accurate wiring of neural circuits in the developing nervous system in both vertebrates and invertebrates, and may also contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders, for instance, autism, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and schizophrenia. However, the molecular underpinnings underlying developmental remodeling are still not fully understood. Here, we have identified DnaJ-like-2 (Droj2), orthologous to human DNAJA1 and DNAJA4 that is predicted to be involved in protein refolding, as a developmental signal promoting dendrite sculpting of the class IV dendritic arborization (C4da) sensory neuron in Drosophila. We further show that Arf102F, a GTP-binding protein previously implicated in protein trafficking, serves downstream of Droj2 to govern neurite pruning of C4da sensory neurons. Intriguingly, our data consistently demonstrate that both Droj2 and Arf102F promote the downregulation of the conserved L1-type cell-adhesion molecule Neuroglian anterior to dendrite pruning. Mechanistically, Droj2 genetically interacts with Arf102F and promotes Neuroglian downregulation to initiate dendrite severing. Taken together, this systematic study sheds light on an unprecedented function of Droj2 and Arf102F in neuronal development.

The Drosophila chemokine-like Orion bridges phosphatidylserine and Draper in phagocytosis of neurons

Phagocytic clearance of degenerating neurons is triggered by "eat-me" signals exposed on the neuronal surface. The conserved neuronal eat-me signal phosphatidylserine (PS) and the engulfment receptor Draper (Drpr) mediate phagocytosis of degenerating neurons in Drosophila. However, how PS is recognized by Drpr-expressing phagocytes in vivo remains poorly understood. Using multiple models of dendrite degeneration, we show that the Drosophila chemokine-like protein Orion can bind to PS and is responsible for detecting PS exposure on neurons; it is supplied cell-non-autonomously to coat PS-exposing dendrites and to mediate interactions between PS and Drpr, thus enabling phagocytosis. As a result, the accumulation of Orion on neurons and on phagocytes produces opposite outcomes by potentiating and suppressing phagocytosis, respectively. Moreover, the Orion dosage is a key determinant of the sensitivity of phagocytes to PS exposed on neurons. Lastly, mutagenesis analyses show that the sequence motifs shared between Orion and human immunomodulatory proteins are important for Orion function. Thus, our results uncover a missing link in PS-mediated phagocytosis in Drosophila and imply conserved mechanisms of phagocytosis of neurons.

Functional screening of lysosomal storage disorder genes identifies modifiers of alpha-synuclein neurotoxicity

Heterozygous variants in the glucocerebrosidase (GBA) gene are common and potent risk factors for Parkinson's disease (PD). GBA also causes the autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder (LSD), Gaucher disease, and emerging evidence from human genetics implicates many other LSD genes in PD susceptibility. We have systemically tested 86 conserved fly homologs of 37 human LSD genes for requirements in the aging adult Drosophila brain and for potential genetic interactions with neurodegeneration caused by α-synuclein (αSyn), which forms Lewy body pathology in PD. Our screen identifies 15 genetic enhancers of αSyn-induced progressive locomotor dysfunction, including knockdown of fly homologs of GBA and other LSD genes with independent support as PD susceptibility factors from human genetics (SCARB2, SMPD1, CTSD, GNPTAB, SLC17A5). For several genes, results from multiple alleles suggest dose-sensitivity and context-dependent pleiotropy in the presence or absence of αSyn. Homologs of two genes causing cholesterol storage disorders, Npc1a / NPC1 and Lip4 / LIPA, were independently confirmed as loss-of-function enhancers of αSyn-induced retinal degeneration. The enzymes encoded by several modifier genes are upregulated in αSyn transgenic flies, based on unbiased proteomics, revealing a possible, albeit ineffective, compensatory response. Overall, our results reinforce the important role of lysosomal genes in brain health and PD pathogenesis, and implicate several metabolic pathways, including cholesterol homeostasis, in αSyn-mediated neurotoxicity.

Croquemort elicits activation of the immune deficiency pathway in ticks

The immune deficiency (IMD) pathway directs host defense in arthropods upon bacterial infection. In Pancrustacea, peptidoglycan recognition proteins sense microbial moieties and initiate nuclear factor-κB-driven immune responses. Proteins that elicit the IMD pathway in non-insect arthropods remain elusive. Here, we show that an Ixodes scapularis homolog of croquemort (Crq), a CD36-like protein, promotes activation of the tick IMD pathway. Crq exhibits plasma membrane localization and binds the lipid agonist 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoglycerol. Crq regulates the IMD and jun N-terminal kinase signaling cascades and limits the acquisition of the Lyme disease spirochete B. burgdorferi. Additionally, nymphs silenced for crq display impaired feeding and delayed molting to adulthood due to a deficiency in ecdysteroid synthesis. Collectively, we establish a distinct mechanism for arthropod immunity outside of insects and crustaceans.

TORC1 regulation of dendrite regrowth after pruning is linked to actin and exocytosis

Neurite pruning and regrowth are important mechanisms to adapt neural circuits to distinct developmental stages. Neurite regrowth after pruning often depends on differential regulation of growth signaling pathways, but their precise mechanisms of action during regrowth are unclear. Here, we show that the PI3K/TORC1 pathway is required for dendrite regrowth after pruning in Drosophila peripheral neurons during metamorphosis. TORC1 impinges on translation initiation, and our analysis of 5' untranslated regions (UTRs) of remodeling factor mRNAs linked to actin suggests that TOR selectively stimulates the translation of regrowth over pruning factors. Furthermore, we find that dendrite regrowth also requires the GTPase RalA and the exocyst complex as regulators of polarized secretion, and we provide evidence that this pathway is also regulated by TOR. We propose that TORC1 coordinates dendrite regrowth after pruning by coordinately stimulating the translation of regrowth factors involved in cytoskeletal regulation and secretion.

Zebrafish cutaneous injury models reveal that Langerhans cells engulf axonal debris in adult epidermis

Somatosensory neurons extend enormous peripheral axons to the skin, where they detect diverse environmental stimuli. Somatosensory peripheral axons are easily damaged due to their small caliber and superficial location. Axonal damage results in Wallerian degeneration, creating vast quantities of cellular debris that phagocytes must remove to maintain organ homeostasis. The cellular mechanisms that ensure efficient clearance of axon debris from stratified adult skin are unknown. Here, we established zebrafish scales as a tractable model to study axon degeneration in the adult epidermis. Using this system, we demonstrated that skin-resident immune cells known as Langerhans cells engulf the majority of axon debris. In contrast to immature skin, adult keratinocytes did not significantly contribute to debris removal, even in animals lacking Langerhans cells. Our study establishes a powerful new model for studying Wallerian degeneration and identifies a new function for Langerhans cells in maintenance of adult skin homeostasis following injury. These findings have important implications for pathologies that trigger somatosensory axon degeneration.

Drosophila postembryonic nervous system development: a model for the endocrine control of development

During postembryonic life, hormones, including ecdysteroids, juvenile hormones, insulin-like peptides, and activin/TGFβ ligands act to transform the larval nervous system into an adult version, which is a fine-grained mosaic of recycled larval neurons and adult-specific neurons. Hormones provide both instructional signals that make cells competent to undergo developmental change and timing cues to evoke these changes across the nervous system. While touching on all the above hormones, our emphasis is on the ecdysteroids, ecdysone and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). These are the prime movers of insect molting and metamorphosis and are involved in all phases of nervous system development, including neurogenesis, pruning, arbor outgrowth, and cell death. Ecdysteroids appear as a series of steroid peaks that coordinate the larval molts and the different phases of metamorphosis. Each peak directs a stereotyped cascade of transcription factor expression. The cascade components then direct temporal programs of effector gene expression, but the latter vary markedly according to tissue and life stage. The neurons read the ecdysteroid titer through various isoforms of the ecdysone receptor, a nuclear hormone receptor. For example, at metamorphosis the pruning of larval neurons is mediated through the B isoforms, which have strong activation functions, whereas subsequent outgrowth is mediated through the A isoform through which ecdysteroids play a permissive role to allow local tissue interactions to direct outgrowth. The major circulating ecdysteroid can also change through development. During adult development ecdysone promotes early adult patterning and differentiation while its metabolite, 20E, later evokes terminal adult differentiation.

Polycomb group genes are required for neuronal pruning in Drosophila

BACKGROUND

Pruning that selectively eliminates unnecessary or incorrect neurites is required for proper wiring of the mature nervous system. During Drosophila metamorphosis, dendritic arbourization sensory neurons (ddaCs) and mushroom body (MB) γ neurons can selectively prune their larval dendrites and/or axons in response to the steroid hormone ecdysone. An ecdysone-induced transcriptional cascade plays a key role in initiating neuronal pruning. However, how downstream components of ecdysone signalling are induced remains not entirely understood.

RESULTS

Here, we identify that Scm, a component of Polycomb group (PcG) complexes, is required for dendrite pruning of ddaC neurons. We show that two PcG complexes, PRC1 and PRC2, are important for dendrite pruning. Interestingly, depletion of PRC1 strongly enhances ectopic expression of Abdominal B (Abd-B) and Sex combs reduced, whereas loss of PRC2 causes mild upregulation of Ultrabithorax and Abdominal A in ddaC neurons. Among these Hox genes, overexpression of Abd-B causes the most severe pruning defects, suggesting its dominant effect. Knockdown of the core PRC1 component Polyhomeotic (Ph) or Abd-B overexpression selectively downregulates Mical expression, thereby inhibiting ecdysone signalling. Finally, Ph is also required for axon pruning and Abd-B silencing in MB γ neurons, indicating a conserved function of PRC1 in two types of pruning.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates important roles of PcG and Hox genes in regulating ecdysone signalling and neuronal pruning in Drosophila. Moreover, our findings suggest a non-canonical and PRC2-independent role of PRC1 in Hox gene silencing during neuronal pruning.

Beyond Cellular Immunity: On the Biological Significance of Insect Hemocytes

Insect immunity is assorted into humoral and cellular immune reactions. Humoral reactions involve the regulated production of anti-microbial peptides, which directly kill microbial invaders at the membrane and intracellular levels. In cellular immune reactions, millions of hemocytes are mobilized to sites of infection and replaced by hematopoiesis at a high biological cost after the immune defense. Here, we considered that the high biological costs of maintaining and replacing hemocytes would be a better investment if hemocytes carried out meaningful biological actions unrelated to cellular immunity. This idea allows us to treat a set of 10 hemocyte actions that are not directly involved in immunity, some of which, so far, are known only in Drosophila melanogaster. These include (1) their actions in molting and development, (2) in surviving severe hypoxia, (3) producing phenoloxidase precursor and its actions beyond immunity, (4) producing vitellogenin in a leafhopper, (5) recognition and responses to cancer in Drosophila, (6) non-immune actions in Drosophila, (7) clearing apoptotic cells during development of the central nervous system, (8) developing hematopoietic niches in Drosophila, (9) synthesis and transport of a lipoprotein, and (10) hemocyte roles in iron transport. We propose that the biological significance of hemocytes extends considerably beyond immunity.

Developmental pruning of sensory neurites by mechanical tearing in Drosophila

Mechanical forces actively shape cells during development, but little is known about their roles during neuronal morphogenesis. Developmental neurite pruning, a critical circuit specification mechanism, often involves neurite abscission at predetermined sites by unknown mechanisms. Pruning of Drosophila sensory neuron dendrites during metamorphosis is triggered by the hormone ecdysone, which induces local disassembly of the dendritic cytoskeleton. Subsequently, dendrites are severed at positions close to the soma by an unknown mechanism. We found that ecdysone signaling causes the dendrites to become mechanically fragile. Severing occurs during periods of increased pupal morphogenetic tissue movements, which exert mechanical forces on the destabilized dendrites. Tissue movements and dendrite severing peak during pupal ecdysis, a period of strong abdominal contractions, and abolishing ecdysis causes non-cell autonomous dendrite pruning defects. Thus, our data establish mechanical tearing as a novel mechanism during neurite pruning.

Establishment of a novel axon pruning model of Drosophila motor neuron

Developmental neuronal pruning is a process by which neurons selectively remove excessive or unnecessary neurite without causing neuronal death. Importantly, this process is widely used for the refinement of neural circuits in both vertebrates and invertebrates, and may also contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), class IV dendritic arborization (da) sensory neurons of Drosophila, selectively remove the dendrites without losing their somas and axons, while the dendrites and axons of mushroom body (MB) γ neuron in the central nervous system (CNS) are eliminated by localized fragmentation during metamorphosis. Alternatively, dendrite pruning of ddaC neurons is usually investigated via live-cell imaging, while dissection and fixation are currently used for evaluating MB γ neuron axon pruning. Thus, an excellent model system to assess axon specific pruning directly via live-cell imaging remains elusive. Here, we report that the Drosophila motor neuron offers a unique advantage for studying axon pruning. Interestingly, we uncover that long-range projecting axon bundle from soma at ventral nerve cord (VNC), undergoes degeneration rather than retraction during metamorphosis. Strikingly, the pruning process of the motor axon bundle is straightforward to investigate via live imaging and it occurs approximately at 22 h after pupal formation (APF), when axon bundles are completely cleared. Consistently, the classical axon pruning regulators in the Drosophila MB γ neuron, including TGF-β signaling, ecdysone signaling, JNK signaling, and the ubiquitin-proteasome system are also involved in governing motor axon pruning. Finally, our findings establish an unprecedented axon pruning mode that will serve to systematically screen and identify undiscovered axon pruning regulators. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Drosophila GSK3β promotes microtubule disassembly and dendrite pruning in sensory neurons

The evolutionarily conserved Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β (GSK3β), a negative regulator of microtubules, is crucial for neuronal polarization, growth and migration during animal development. However, it remains unknown whether GSK3β regulates neuronal pruning, which is a regressive process. Here, we report that the Drosophila GSK3β homologue Shaggy (Sgg) is cell-autonomously required for dendrite pruning of ddaC sensory neurons during metamorphosis. Sgg is necessary and sufficient to promote microtubule depolymerization, turnover and disassembly in the dendrites. Although Sgg is not required for the minus-end-out microtubule orientation in dendrites, hyperactivated Sgg can disturb the dendritic microtubule orientation. Moreover, our pharmacological and genetic data suggest that Sgg is required to promote dendrite pruning at least partly via microtubule disassembly. We show that Sgg and Par-1 kinases act synergistically to promote microtubule disassembly and dendrite pruning. Thus, Sgg and Par-1 might converge on and phosphorylate a common downstream microtubule-associated protein(s) to disassemble microtubules and thereby facilitate dendrite pruning.

Non-autonomous cell death induced by the Draper phagocytosis receptor requires signaling through the JNK and SRC pathways

The last step of cell death is cell clearance, a process critical for tissue homeostasis. For efficient cell clearance to occur, phagocytes and dead cells need to reciprocally signal to each other. One important phenomenon that is under-investigated, however, is that phagocytes not only engulf corpses but contribute to cell death progression. The aims of this study were to determine how the phagocytic receptor Draper non-autonomously induces cell death, using the Drosophila ovary as a model system. We found that Draper, expressed in epithelial follicle cells, requires its intracellular signaling domain to kill the adjacent nurse cell population. Kinases Src42A, Shark and JNK (Bsk) were required for Draper-induced nurse cell death. Signs of nurse cell death occurred prior to apparent engulfment and required the caspase Dcp-1, indicating that it uses a similar apoptotic pathway to starvation-induced cell death. These findings indicate that active signaling by Draper is required to kill nurse cells via the caspase Dcp-1, providing novel insights into mechanisms of phagoptosis driven by non-professional phagocytes.

TauLUM, an in vivo Drosophila sensor of tau multimerization, identifies neuroprotective interventions in tauopathy

Tau protein aggregates are a defining neuropathological feature of "tauopathies," a group of neurodegenerative disorders that include Alzheimer's disease. In the current study, we develop a Drosophila split-luciferase-based sensor of tau-tau interaction. This model, which we term "tauLUM," allows investigators to quantify tau multimerization at individual time points or longitudinally in adult, living animals housed in a 96-well plate. TauLUM causes cell death in the adult Drosophila brain and responds to both pharmacological and genetic interventions. We find that transgenic expression of an anti-tau intrabody or pharmacological inhibition of HSP90 reduces tau multimerization and cell death in tauLUM flies, establishing the suitability of this system for future drug and genetic modifier screening. Overall, our studies position tauLUM as a powerful in vivo discovery platform that leverages the advantages of the Drosophila model organism to better understand tau multimerization.

A photo-switchable assay system for dendrite degeneration and repair in Drosophila melanogaster

Neurodegeneration arising from aging, injury, or diseases has devastating health consequences. Whereas neuronal survival and axon degeneration have been studied extensively, much less is known about how neurodegeneration affects dendrites, in part due to the limited assay systems available. To develop an assay for dendrite degeneration and repair, we used photo-switchable caspase-3 (caspase-Light-Oxygen-Voltage-sensing [caspase-LOV]) in peripheral class 4 dendrite arborization (c4da) neurons to induce graded neurodegeneration by adjusting illumination duration during development and adulthood in Drosophila melanogaster. We found that both developing and mature c4da neurons were able to survive while sustaining mild neurodegeneration induced by moderate caspase-LOV activation. Further, we observed active dendrite addition and dendrite regeneration in developing and mature c4da neurons, respectively. Using this assay, we found that the mouse Wallerian degeneration slow (Wld^S) protein can protect c4da neurons from caspase-LOV-induced dendrite degeneration and cell death. Furthermore, our data show that Wld^S can reduce dendrite elimination without affecting dendrite addition. In summary, we successfully established a photo-switchable assay system in both developing and mature neurons and used Wld^S as a test case to study the mechanisms underlying dendrite regeneration and repair.

Systematic analysis of olfactory protein-protein interactions network of fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster

Olfaction is one of the physiological traits of insect behavior. Insects have evolved a sophisticated olfactory system and use a combined coding strategy to process general odor. Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model to reveal the molecular and cellular mechanisms of odor detection. Identifying new olfactory targets through complex interactions will contribute to a better understanding of the functions, interactions, and signaling pathways of olfactory proteins. However, the mechanism of D. melanogaster olfaction is still unclear, and more olfactory proteins are required to be discovered. In this study, we tried to explore essential proteins in the olfactory system of D. melanogaster and conduct protein-protein interactions (PPIs) analysis. We constructed the PPIs network of the olfactory system of D. melanogaster, consisting of 863 proteins and 18,959 interactions. Various methods were used to perform functional enrichment analysis, topological analysis and cluster analysis. Our results confirmed that Class B scavenger receptors (SR-Bs), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), and UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) play an essential role in olfaction of D. melanogaster. The proteins obtained in this study can be used for subsequent functional identification in D. melanogaster olfactory.

Drosophila CLASP regulates microtubule orientation and dendrite pruning by suppressing Par-1 kinase

The evolutionarily conserved CLASPs (cytoplasmic linker-associated proteins) are microtubule-associated proteins that inhibit microtubule catastrophe and promote rescue. CLASPs can regulate axonal elongation and dendrite branching in growing neurons. However, their roles in microtubule orientation and neurite pruning in remodeling neurons remain unknown. Here, we identify the Drosophila CLASP homolog Orbit/MAST, which is required for dendrite pruning in ddaC sensory neurons during metamorphosis. Orbit is important for maintenance of the minus-end-out microtubule orientation in ddaC dendrites. Our structural analysis reveals that the microtubule lattice-binding TOG2 domain is required for Orbit to regulate dendritic microtubule orientation and dendrite pruning. In a genetic modifier screen, we further identify the conserved Par-1 kinase as a suppressor of Orbit in dendritic microtubule orientation. Moreover, elevated Par-1 function impairs dendritic microtubule orientation and dendrite pruning, phenocopying orbit mutants. Overall, our study demonstrates that Drosophila CLASP governs dendritic microtubule orientation and dendrite pruning at least partly via suppressing Par-1 kinase.

Neuron-glia crosstalk in neuronal remodeling and degeneration: Neuronal signals inducing glial cell phagocytic transformation in Drosophila

Neuronal remodeling is a conserved mechanism that eliminates unwanted neurites and can include the loss of cell bodies. In these processes, a key role for glial cells in events from synaptic pruning to neuron elimination has been clearly identified in the last decades. Signals sent from dying neurons or neurites to be removed are received by appropriate glial cells. After receiving these signals, glial cells infiltrate degenerating sites and then, engulf and clear neuronal debris through phagocytic mechanisms. There are few identified or proposed signals and receptors involved in neuron-glia crosstalk, which induces the transformation of glial cells to phagocytes during neuronal remodeling in Drosophila. Many of these signaling pathways are conserved in mammals. Here, we particularly emphasize the role of Orion, a recently identified neuronal CX₃ C chemokine-like secreted protein, which induces astrocyte infiltration and engulfment during mushroom body neuronal remodeling. Although, chemokine signaling was not described previously in insects we propose that chemokine-like involvement in neuron/glial cell interaction is an evolutionarily ancient mechanism.

Dendrite regeneration in C. elegans is controlled by the RAC GTPase CED-10 and the RhoGEF TIAM-1

Neurons are vulnerable to physical insults, which compromise the integrity of both dendrites and axons. Although several molecular pathways of axon regeneration are identified, our knowledge of dendrite regeneration is limited. To understand the mechanisms of dendrite regeneration, we used the PVD neurons in C. elegans with stereotyped branched dendrites. Using femtosecond laser, we severed the primary dendrites and axon of this neuron. After severing the primary dendrites near the cell body, we observed sprouting of new branches from the proximal site within 6 hours, which regrew further with time in an unstereotyped manner. This was accompanied by reconnection between the proximal and distal dendrites, and fusion among the higher-order branches as reported before. We quantified the regeneration pattern into three aspects–territory length, number of branches, and fusion phenomena. Axonal injury causes a retraction of the severed end followed by a Dual leucine zipper kinase-1 (DLK-1) dependent regrowth from the severed end. We tested the roles of the major axon regeneration signalling hubs such as DLK-1-RPM-1, cAMP elevation, let-7 miRNA, AKT-1, Phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure/PS in dendrite regeneration. We found that neither dendrite regrowth nor fusion was affected by the axon injury pathway molecules. Surprisingly, we found that the RAC GTPase, CED-10 and its upstream GEF, TIAM-1 play a cell-autonomous role in dendrite regeneration. Additionally, the function of CED-10 in epidermal cell is critical for post-dendrotomy fusion phenomena. This work describes a novel regulatory mechanism of dendrite regeneration and provides a framework for understanding the cellular mechanism of dendrite regeneration using PVD neuron as a model system.

The knowledge of the repair of injured neural circuits comes from the study of the regeneration of injured axons. The information receiving neurites, namely dendrites, are also vulnerable to physical insult during stroke and trauma. However, little knowledge is available on the mechanism of dendrite regeneration since the study of Cajal. In order to get insight into this process, we severed both axon and dendrites of PVD neuron in C. elegans using laser. By comparing the roles of axon regeneration pathways in both dendrite and axon regeneration in this neuron, we found that dendrite regeneration is independent of molecular mechanisms involving axon regrowth. We discovered that dendrite regeneration is dependent on the RAC GTPase CED-10 and GEF TIAM-1. Moreover, we found that CED-10 plays roles within both neuron and in the surrounding epithelia for mounting regeneration response to dendrite injury. This work provides mechanistic insight into the process of dendrite repair after physical injury.

Phagocytosis and self-destruction break down dendrites of Drosophila sensory neurons at distinct steps of Wallerian degeneration

After injury, severed dendrites and axons expose the "eat-me" signal phosphatidylserine (PS) on their surface while they break down. The degeneration of injured axons is controlled by a conserved Wallerian degeneration (WD) pathway, which is thought to activate neurite self-destruction through Sarm-mediated nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) depletion. While neurite PS exposure is known to be affected by genetic manipulations of NAD+, how the WD pathway coordinates both neurite PS exposure and self-destruction and whether PS-induced phagocytosis contributes to neurite breakdown in vivo remain unknown. Here, we show that in Drosophila sensory dendrites, PS exposure and self-destruction are two sequential steps of WD resulting from Sarm activation. Surprisingly, phagocytosis is the main driver of dendrite degeneration induced by both genetic NAD+ disruptions and injury. However, unlike neuronal Nmnat loss, which triggers PS exposure only and results in phagocytosis-dependent dendrite degeneration, injury activates both PS exposure and self-destruction as two redundant means of dendrite degeneration. Furthermore, the axon-death factor Axed is only partially required for self-destruction of injured dendrites, acting in parallel with PS-induced phagocytosis. Lastly, injured dendrites exhibit a unique rhythmic calcium-flashing that correlates with WD. Therefore, both NAD+-related general mechanisms and dendrite-specific programs govern PS exposure and self-destruction in injury-induced dendrite degeneration in vivo.

bfc, a novel serpent co-factor for the expression of croquemort, regulates efferocytosis in Drosophila melanogaster

Efferocytosis is the process by which phagocytes recognize, engulf, and digest (or clear) apoptotic cells during development. Impaired efferocytosis is associated with developmental defects and autoimmune diseases. In Drosophila melanogaster, recognition of apoptotic cells requires phagocyte surface receptors, including the scavenger receptor CD36-related protein, Croquemort (Crq, encoded by crq). In fact, Crq expression is upregulated in the presence of apoptotic cells, as well as in response to excessive apoptosis. Here, we identified a novel gene bfc (booster for croquemort), which plays a role in efferocytosis, specifically the regulation of the crq expression. We found that Bfc protein interacts with the zinc finger domain of the GATA transcription factor Serpent (Srp), to enhance its direct binding to the crq promoter; thus, they function together in regulating crq expression and efferocytosis. Overall, we show that Bfc serves as a Srp co-factor to upregulate the transcription of the crq encoded receptor, and consequently boosts macrophage efferocytosis in response to excessive apoptosis. Therefore, this study clarifies how phagocytes integrate apoptotic cell signals to mediate efferocytosis.

AMPK adapts metabolism to developmental energy requirement during dendrite pruning in Drosophila

To reshape neuronal connectivity in adult stages, Drosophila sensory neurons prune their dendrites during metamorphosis using a genetic degeneration program that is induced by the steroid hormone ecdysone. Metamorphosis is a nonfeeding stage that imposes metabolic constraints on development. We find that AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a regulator of energy homeostasis, is cell-autonomously required for dendrite pruning. AMPK is activated by ecdysone and promotes oxidative phosphorylation and pyruvate usage, likely to enable neurons to use noncarbohydrate metabolites such as amino acids for energy production. Loss of AMPK or mitochondrial deficiency causes specific defects in pruning factor translation and the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Our findings distinguish pruning from pathological neurite degeneration, which is often induced by defects in energy production, and highlight how metabolism is adapted to fit energy-costly developmental transitions.

A secreted factor NimrodB4 promotes the elimination of apoptotic corpses by phagocytes in Drosophila

Programmed cell death plays a fundamental role in development and tissue homeostasis. Professional and non‐professional phagocytes achieve the proper recognition, uptake, and degradation of apoptotic cells, a process called efferocytosis. Failure in efferocytosis leads to autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases. In Drosophila, two transmembrane proteins of the Nimrod family, Draper and SIMU, mediate the recognition and internalization of apoptotic corpses. Beyond this early step, little is known about how apoptotic cell degradation is regulated. Here, we study the function of a secreted member of the Nimrod family, NimB4, and reveal its crucial role in the clearance of apoptotic cells. We show that NimB4 is expressed by macrophages and glial cells, the two main types of phagocytes in Drosophila. Similar to draper mutants, NimB4 mutants accumulate apoptotic corpses during embryogenesis and in the larval brain. Our study points to the role of NimB4 in phagosome maturation, more specifically in the fusion between the phagosome and lysosomes. We propose that similar to bridging molecules, NimB4 binds to apoptotic corpses to engage a phagosome maturation program dedicated to efferocytosis.

Transparent Touch: Insights From Model Systems on Epidermal Control of Somatosensory Innervation

Somatosensory neurons (SSNs) densely innervate our largest organ, the skin, and shape our experience of the world, mediating responses to sensory stimuli including touch, pressure, and temperature. Historically, epidermal contributions to somatosensation, including roles in shaping innervation patterns and responses to sensory stimuli, have been understudied. However, recent work demonstrates that epidermal signals dictate patterns of SSN skin innervation through a variety of mechanisms including targeting afferents to the epidermis, providing instructive cues for branching morphogenesis, growth control and structural stability of neurites, and facilitating neurite-neurite interactions. Here, we focus onstudies conducted in worms (Caenorhabditis elegans), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), and zebrafish (Danio rerio): prominent model systems in which anatomical and genetic analyses have defined fundamental principles by which epidermal cells govern SSN development.

Phagocytosis by Peripheral Glia: Importance for Nervous System Functions and Implications in Injury and Disease

The central nervous system (CNS) has very limited capacity to regenerate after traumatic injury or disease. In contrast, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) has far greater capacity for regeneration. This difference can be partly attributed to variances in glial-mediated functions, such as axon guidance, structural support, secretion of growth factors and phagocytic activity. Due to their growth-promoting characteristic, transplantation of PNS glia has been trialed for neural repair. After peripheral nerve injuries, Schwann cells (SCs, the main PNS glia) phagocytose myelin debris and attract macrophages to the injury site to aid in debris clearance. One peripheral nerve, the olfactory nerve, is unique in that it continuously regenerates throughout life. The olfactory nerve glia, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), are the primary phagocytes within this nerve, continuously clearing axonal debris arising from the normal regeneration of the nerve and after injury. In contrast to SCs, OECs do not appear to attract macrophages. SCs and OECs also respond to and phagocytose bacteria, a function likely critical for tackling microbial invasion of the CNS via peripheral nerves. However, phagocytosis is not always effective; inflammation, aging and/or genetic factors may contribute to compromised phagocytic activity. Here, we highlight the diverse roles of SCs and OECs with the focus on their phagocytic activity under physiological and pathological conditions. We also explore why understanding the contribution of peripheral glia phagocytosis may provide us with translational strategies for achieving axonal regeneration of the injured nervous system and potentially for the treatment of certain neurological diseases.

Upgraded CRISPR/Cas9 tools for tissue-specific mutagenesis in Drosophila

CRISPR/Cas9 has emerged as a powerful technology for tissue-specific mutagenesis. However, tissue-specific CRISPR/Cas9 tools currently available in Drosophila remain deficient in three significant ways. First, many existing gRNAs are inefficient, such that further improvements of gRNA expression constructs are needed for more efficient and predictable mutagenesis in both somatic and germline tissues. Second, it has been difficult to label mutant cells in target tissues with current methods. Lastly, application of tissue-specific mutagenesis at present often relies on Gal4-driven Cas9, which hampers the flexibility and effectiveness of the system. Here, we tackle these deficiencies by building upon our previous CRISPR-mediated tissue-restricted mutagenesis (CRISPR-TRiM) tools. First, we significantly improved gRNA efficiency in somatic tissues by optimizing multiplexed gRNA design. Similarly, we also designed efficient dual-gRNA vectors for the germline. Second, we developed methods to positively and negatively label mutant cells in tissue-specific mutagenesis by incorporating co-CRISPR reporters into gRNA expression vectors. Lastly, we generated genetic reagents for convenient conversion of existing Gal4 drivers into tissue-specific Cas9 lines based on homology-assisted CRISPR knock-in. In this way, we expand the choices of Cas9 for CRISPR-TRiM analysis to broader tissues and developmental stages. Overall, our upgraded CRISPR/Cas9 tools make tissue-specific mutagenesis more versatile, reliable, and effective in Drosophila These improvements may be also applied to other model systems.

Macrophages and Their Organ Locations Shape Each Other in Development and Homeostasis - A Drosophila Perspective

Across the animal kingdom, macrophages are known for their functions in innate immunity, but they also play key roles in development and homeostasis. Recent insights from single cell profiling and other approaches in the invertebrate model organism Drosophila melanogaster reveal substantial diversity among Drosophila macrophages (plasmatocytes). Together with vertebrate studies that show genuine expression signatures of macrophages based on their organ microenvironments, it is expected that Drosophila macrophage functional diversity is shaped by their anatomical locations and systemic conditions. In vivo evidence for diverse macrophage functions has already been well established by Drosophila genetics: Drosophila macrophages play key roles in various aspects of development and organogenesis, including embryogenesis and development of the nervous, digestive, and reproductive systems. Macrophages further maintain homeostasis in various organ systems and promote regeneration following organ damage and injury. The interdependence and interplay of tissues and their local macrophage populations in Drosophila have implications for understanding principles of organ development and homeostasis in a wide range of species.

Transcriptional changes revealed genes and pathways involved in the deficient testis caused by the inhibition of alkaline ceramidase (Dacer) in Drosophila melanogaster

Sphingolipids are ubiquitous structural components of eukaryotic cell membranes which are vital for maintaining the integrity of cells. Alkaline ceramidase is a key enzyme in sphingolipid biosynthesis pathway; however, little is known about the role of the enzyme in the male reproductive system of Drosophila melanogaster. To investigate the impact of alkaline ceramidase (Dacer) on male Drosophila, we got Dacer deficiency mutants (MUs) and found they displayed apparent defects in the testis's phenotype. To profile the molecular changes associated with this abnormal phenotype, we performed de novo transcriptome analyses of the MU and wildtype (WT) testes; and revealed 1239 upregulated genes and 1102 downregulated genes. Then, six upregulated DEGs (papilin [Ppn], croquemort [Crq], terribly reduced optic lobes [Trol], Laminin, Wunen-2, collagen type IV alpha 1 [Cg25C]) and three downregulated DEGs (mucin related 18B [Mur18B], rhomboid-7 [Rho-7], CG3168) were confirmed through quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in WT and MU samples. The differentially expressed genes were mainly associated with catalytic activity, oxidoreductase activity and transmembrane transporter activity, which significantly contributed to extracellular matrix-receptor interaction, fatty acids biosynthesis as well as glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism. The results highlight the importance of Dacer in the reproductive system of D. melanogaster and provide valuable resources to dig out the specific biological functions of Dacer in insect reproduction.

Versatile CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mosaic analysis by gRNA-induced crossing-over for unmodified genomes

Mosaic animals have provided the platform for many fundamental discoveries in developmental biology, cell biology, and other fields. Techniques to produce mosaic animals by mitotic recombination have been extensively developed in Drosophila melanogaster but are less common for other laboratory organisms. Here, we report mosaic analysis by gRNA-induced crossing-over (MAGIC), a new technique for generating mosaic animals based on DNA double-strand breaks produced by CRISPR/Cas9. MAGIC efficiently produces mosaic clones in both somatic tissues and the germline of Drosophila. Further, by developing a MAGIC toolkit for 1 chromosome arm, we demonstrate the method's application in characterizing gene function in neural development and in generating fluorescently marked clones in wild-derived Drosophila strains. Eliminating the need to introduce recombinase-recognition sites into the genome, this simple and versatile system simplifies mosaic analysis in Drosophila and can in principle be applied in any organism that is compatible with CRISPR/Cas9.

Spatiotemporal regulation of developmental neurite pruning: Molecular and cellular insights from Drosophila models

Developmental neurite pruning is a process by which neurons selectively eliminate unnecessary processes of axons and/or dendrites without cell death, which shapes the mature wiring of nervous systems. In this sense, developmental neurite pruning requires spatiotemporally precise control of local degradation of cellular components including cytoskeletons and membranes. The Drosophila nervous system undergoes large-scale remodeling, including axon/dendrite pruning, during metamorphosis. In addition to this unique phenomenon in the nervous system, powerful genetic tools make the Drosophila nervous system a sophisticated model to investigate spatiotemporal regulation of neural remodeling. This article reviews recent advances to our understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of developmental axon/dendrite pruning, mainly focusing on studies in Drosophila sensory neurons and mushroom body neurons.

Glial Metabolic Rewiring Promotes Axon Regeneration and Functional Recovery in the Central Nervous System

Axons in the mature central nervous system (CNS) fail to regenerate after axotomy, partly due to the inhibitory environment constituted by reactive glial cells producing astrocytic scars, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, and myelin debris. We investigated this inhibitory milieu, showing that it is reversible and depends on glial metabolic status. We show that glia can be reprogrammed to promote morphological and functional regeneration after CNS injury in Drosophila via increased glycolysis. This enhancement is mediated by the glia derived metabolites: L-lactate and L-2-hydroxyglutarate (L-2HG). Genetically/pharmacologically increasing or reducing their bioactivity promoted or impeded CNS axon regeneration. L-lactate and L-2HG from glia acted on neuronal metabotropic GABA_B receptors to boost cAMP signaling. Local application of L-lactate to injured spinal cord promoted corticospinal tract axon regeneration, leading to behavioral recovery in adult mice. Our findings revealed a metabolic switch to circumvent the inhibition of glia while amplifying their beneficial effects for treating CNS injuries.

The membrane protein Raw regulates dendrite pruning via the secretory pathway

Neuronal pruning is essential for proper wiring of the nervous systems in invertebrates and vertebrates. Drosophila ddaC sensory neurons selectively prune their larval dendrites to sculpt the nervous system during early metamorphosis. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying ddaC dendrite pruning remain elusive. Here, we identify an important and cell-autonomous role of the membrane protein Raw in dendrite pruning of ddaC neurons. Raw appears to regulate dendrite pruning via a novel mechanism, which is independent of JNK signaling. Importantly, we show that Raw promotes endocytosis and downregulation of the conserved L1-type cell-adhesion molecule Neuroglian (Nrg) prior to dendrite pruning. Moreover, Raw is required to modulate the secretory pathway by regulating the integrity of secretory organelles and efficient protein secretion. Mechanistically, Raw facilitates Nrg downregulation and dendrite pruning in part through regulation of the secretory pathway. Thus, this study reveals a JNK-independent role of Raw in regulating the secretory pathway and thereby promoting dendrite pruning.

Injured Axons Instruct Schwann Cells to Build Constricting Actin Spheres to Accelerate Axonal Disintegration

After a peripheral nerve lesion, distal ends of injured axons disintegrate into small fragments that are subsequently cleared by Schwann cells and later by macrophages. Axonal debris clearing is an early step of the repair process that facilitates regeneration. We show here that Schwann cells promote distal cut axon disintegration for timely clearing. By combining cell-based and in vivo models of nerve lesion with mouse genetics, we show that this mechanism is induced by distal cut axons, which signal to Schwann cells through PlGF mediating the activation and upregulation of VEGFR1 in Schwann cells. In turn, VEGFR1 activates Pak1, leading to the formation of constricting actomyosin spheres along unfragmented distal cut axons to mediate their disintegration. Interestingly, oligodendrocytes can acquire a similar behavior as Schwann cells by enforced expression of VEGFR1. These results thus identify controllable molecular cues of a neuron-glia crosstalk essential for timely clearing of damaged axons.

Phagocytic glia are obligatory intermediates in transmission of mutant huntingtin aggregates across neuronal synapses

Emerging evidence supports the hypothesis that pathogenic protein aggregates associated with neurodegenerative diseases spread from cell to cell through the brain in a manner akin to infectious prions. Here, we show that mutant huntingtin (mHtt) aggregates associated with Huntington disease transfer anterogradely from presynaptic to postsynaptic neurons in the adult Drosophila olfactory system. Trans-synaptic transmission of mHtt aggregates is inversely correlated with neuronal activity and blocked by inhibiting caspases in presynaptic neurons, implicating synaptic dysfunction and cell death in aggregate spreading. Remarkably, mHtt aggregate transmission across synapses requires the glial scavenger receptor Draper and involves a transient visit to the glial cytoplasm, indicating that phagocytic glia act as obligatory intermediates in aggregate spreading between synaptically-connected neurons. These findings expand our understanding of phagocytic glia as double-edged players in neurodegeneration-by clearing neurotoxic protein aggregates, but also providing an opportunity for prion-like seeds to evade phagolysosomal degradation and propagate further in the brain.

A microtubule polymerase is required for microtubule orientation and dendrite pruning in Drosophila

Drosophila class IV ddaC neurons selectively prune all larval dendrites to refine the nervous system during metamorphosis. During dendrite pruning, severing of proximal dendrites is preceded by local microtubule (MT) disassembly. Here, we identify an unexpected role of Mini spindles (Msps), a conserved MT polymerase, in governing dendrite pruning. Msps associates with another MT-associated protein TACC, and both stabilize each other in ddaC neurons. Moreover, Msps and TACC are required to orient minus-end-out MTs in dendrites. We further show that the functions of msps in dendritic MT orientation and dendrite pruning are antagonized by the kinesin-13 MT depolymerase Klp10A. Excessive MT depolymerization, which is induced by pharmacological treatment and katanin overexpression, also perturbs dendritic MT orientation and dendrite pruning, phenocopying msps mutants. Thus, we demonstrate that the MT polymerase Msps is required to form dendritic minus-end-out MTs and thereby promotes dendrite pruning in Drosophila sensory neurons.

PP2A phosphatase is required for dendrite pruning via actin regulation in Drosophila

Large‐scale pruning, the developmentally regulated degeneration of axons or dendrites, is an important specificity mechanism during neuronal circuit formation. The peripheral sensory class IV dendritic arborization (c4da) neurons of Drosophila larvae specifically prune their dendrites at the onset of metamorphosis in an ecdysone‐dependent manner. Dendrite pruning requires local cytoskeleton remodeling, and the actin‐severing enzyme Mical is an important ecdysone target. In a screen for pruning factors, we identified the protein phosphatase 2 A (PP2A). PP2A interacts genetically with the actin‐severing enzymes Mical and cofilin as well as other actin regulators during pruning. Moreover, Drosophila cofilin undergoes a change in localization at the onset of metamorphosis indicative of a change in actin dynamics. This change is abolished both upon loss of Mical and PP2A. We conclude that PP2A regulates actin dynamics during dendrite pruning.

Beyond being innervated: the epidermis actively shapes sensory dendritic patterning

Sensing environmental cues requires well-built neuronal circuits linked to the body surface. Sensory neurons generate dendrites to innervate surface epithelium, thereby making it the largest sensory organ in the body. Previous studies have illustrated that neuronal type, physiological function and branching patterns are determined by intrinsic factors. Perhaps for effective sensation or protection, sensory dendrites bind to or are surrounded by the substrate epidermis. Recent studies have shed light on the mechanisms by which dendrites interact with their substrates. These interactions suggest that substrates can regulate dendrite guidance, arborization and degeneration. In this review, we focus on recent studies of Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans that demonstrate how epidermal cells can regulate dendrites in several aspects.