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Júnior EF, Bitencourt VS, Souza ÁBMD, Caldas ED. Target analysis of psychoactive drugs in oral fluid by QuEChERS extraction and LC-MS/MS. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 244:116139. [PMID: 38608509 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2024.116139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to validate a modified QuEChERS method, followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, for the determination of 51 psychoactive substances and screening of 22 ones in oral fluid from electronic dance music party (EDM) attendees. Unstimulated oral fluid was collected in a polypropylene tube and stored in a glass vial at -20 ºC. The sample was extracted with acetonitrile:water and MgSO4/NaOAc, followed by cleanup with primary secondary amine and MgSO4. The effectiveness of the sample storage conditions was shown to be comparable to when the Quantisal™ buffer was used, with no substantial concentration loss (< 15%) for all the substances after up to 72 hours at -20º C. The method was satisfactorily validated, with limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) ranging from 0.04 to 0.5 ng/mL and 0.1-1.5 ng/mL, respectively, and was applied to the analysis of 62 real samples. The main substances detected were 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (<0.5-829 ng/mL) and/or methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) (10.1 - 460.6 ng/mL), found in 27 samples, and cocaine (13.0-407.3 ng/mL) and its metabolites (benzoylecgonine 0.17-214.1 ng/mL; ecgonine methyl ester 1.8-150.1 ng/mL) in eight samples. Methamphetamine (11-439 ng/mL) was detected in eight samples, along with MDMA and MDA; eutylone was detected in two cases (4.7 and 24.1 ng/mL) reported as "ecstasy" ingestion. A comparison between self-reported drug use and results of oral fluid analysis indicated that the use of illicit substances is often underreported among EDM attendees, who are often unaware of the substances they consume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ettore Ferrari Júnior
- Forensic Analysis Laboratory, Criminalistics Institute, The Civil Police of the Federal District, Brasília, Federal District, Brazil
| | | | | | - Eloisa Dutra Caldas
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacy, University of Brasília, Brasília, Federal District, Brazil.
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Rizzo FR, Federici M, Mercuri NB. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) Alters Synaptic Dopamine Release in the Dorsal Striatum Through Nicotinic Receptors and DAT Inhibition. Neuroscience 2018; 377:69-76. [PMID: 29510210 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
An increase of extracellular dopamine (DA) has been implicated in the psychostimulant properties of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Although this drug has been reported to affect the DA uptake transporter (DAT), it might activate other mechanisms to regulate the outflow of DA in the brain. Our aim was to examine the overall effects of MDMA on the release of DA in the striatum. We studied the effect of MDMA on stimulus-evoked synaptic DA release in dorsal striatal slices of mice using in vitro amperometric techniques. We also tested the effects of MDMA on the nicotine-induced responses in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) neurons using intracellular electrophysiological recordings. MDMA (1-30 µM) depressed the amplitude and prolonged the decay-time of synaptic DA release in the striatum. Interestingly, in the presence of the broad nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine, and the more selective α4β2 antagonist dihydroβerythroidine (DHβE), MDMA enhanced both peak and duration of DA release. A similar effect was found on cocaine-insensitive (DAT-CI) mice slices. Concentrations of MDMA higher than 100 µM enhanced striatal DA outflow that was in turn, reduced by cocaine. Electrophysiological recordings of dopaminergic neurons in SNpc showed that MDMA depressed the effects of nicotine. Our data are consistent with a prevalent MDMA-induced inhibition of the synaptic release of DA in the dorsal striatum mediated by an interaction with nicotinic receptors. This drug also blocks DAT acting on a different site from cocaine and, at higher concentrations, has amphetamine-like releasing properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nicola Biagio Mercuri
- University of Rome 'Tor Vergata', 00133 Rome, Italy; IRCSS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00143 Rome, Italy.
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Hondebrink L, Zwartsen A, Westerink RHS. Effect fingerprinting of new psychoactive substances (NPS): What can we learn from in vitro data? Pharmacol Ther 2017; 182:193-224. [PMID: 29097307 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is increasing and currently >600 NPS have been reported. However, limited information on neuropharmacological and toxicological effects of NPS is available, hampering risk characterization. We reviewed the literature on the in vitro neuronal modes of action to obtain effect fingerprints of different classes of illicit drugs and NPS. The most frequently reported NPS were selected for review: cathinones (MDPV, α-PVP, mephedrone, 4-MEC, pentedrone, methylone), cannabinoids (JWH-018), (hallucinogenic) phenethylamines (4-fluoroamphetamine, benzofurans (5-APB, 6-APB), 2C-B, NBOMes (25B-NBOMe, 25C-NBOMe, 25I-NBOMe)), arylcyclohexylamines (methoxetamine) and piperazine derivatives (mCPP, TFMPP, BZP). Our effect fingerprints highlight the main modes of action for the different NPS studied, including inhibition and/or reversal of monoamine reuptake transporters (cathinones and non-hallucinogenic phenethylamines), activation of 5-HT2receptors (hallucinogenic phenethylamines and piperazines), activation of cannabinoid receptors (cannabinoids) and inhibition of NDMA receptors (arylcyclohexylamines). Importantly, we identified additional targets by relating reported effect concentrations to the estimated human brain concentrations during recreational use. These additional targets include dopamine receptors, α- and β-adrenergic receptors, GABAAreceptors and acetylcholine receptors, which may all contribute to the observed clinical symptoms following exposure. Additional data is needed as the number of NPS continues to increase. Also, the effect fingerprints we have obtained are still incomplete and suffer from a large variation in the reported effects and effect sizes. Dedicated in vitro screening batteries will aid in complementing specific effect fingerprints of NPS. These fingerprints can be implemented in the risk assessments of NPS that are necessary for eventual control measures to reduce Public Health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hondebrink
- Dutch Poisons Information Center (DPIC), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
| | - Anne Zwartsen
- Dutch Poisons Information Center (DPIC), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands; Neurotoxicology Research Group, Division Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.177, NL-3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Remco H S Westerink
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Division Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.177, NL-3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Neuropharmacological characterization of the new psychoactive substance methoxetamine. Neuropharmacology 2017; 123:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Measuring inhibition of monoamine reuptake transporters by new psychoactive substances (NPS) in real-time using a high-throughput, fluorescence-based assay. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 45:60-71. [PMID: 28506818 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence and use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is increasing and currently over 600 NPS exist. Many illicit drugs and NPS increase brain monoamine levels by inhibition and/or reversal of monoamine reuptake transporters (DAT, NET and SERT). This is often investigated using labor-intensive, radiometric endpoint measurements. We investigated the applicability of a novel and innovative assay that is based on a fluorescent monoamine mimicking substrate. DAT, NET or SERT-expressing human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells were exposed to common drugs (cocaine, dl-amphetamine or MDMA), NPS (4-fluoroamphetamine, PMMA, α-PVP, 5-APB, 2C-B, 25B-NBOMe, 25I-NBOMe or methoxetamine) or the antidepressant fluoxetine. We demonstrate that this fluorescent microplate reader-based assay detects inhibition of different transporters by various drugs and discriminates between drugs. Most IC50 values were in line with previous results from radiometric assays and within estimated human brain concentrations. However, phenethylamines showed higher IC50 values on hSERT, possibly due to experimental differences. Compared to radiometric assays, this high-throughput fluorescent assay is uncomplicated, can measure at physiological conditions, requires no specific facilities and allows for kinetic measurements, enabling detection of transient effects. This assay is therefore a good alternative for radiometric assays to investigate effects of illicit drugs and NPS on monoamine reuptake transporters.
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Ray TS. Constructing the ecstasy of MDMA from its component mental organs: Proposing the primer/probe method. Med Hypotheses 2015; 87:48-60. [PMID: 26826641 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2015.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2015] [Revised: 12/05/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The drug MDMA, commonly known as ecstasy, produces a specific and distinct open hearted mental state, which led to the creation of a new pharmacological class, "entactogens". Extensive literature on its mechanisms of action has come to characterize MDMA as a "messy" drug with multiple mechanisms, but the consensus is that the distinctive entactogenic effects arise from the release of neurotransmitters, primarily serotonin. I propose an alternative hypothesis: The entactogenic mental state is due to the simultaneous direct activation of imidazoline-1 (I1) and serotonin-2 (5-HT2) receptors by MDMA. This hypothesis emerges from "mental organ" theory, which embodies many hypotheses, the most relevant of which are: "Mental organs" are populations of neurons that all express their defining metabotropic receptor, and each mental organ plays a distinct role in the mind, a role shaped by evolution as mental organs evolve by duplication and divergence. Mental organs are the mechanism by which evolution sculpts the mind. Mental organs can be in or out of consciousness. In order for a mental organ to enter consciousness, three things must happen: The mental organ must be activated directly at its defining receptor. 5-HT2 must be simultaneously activated. One of the functions of activated 5-HT2 is to load other simultaneously activated mental organs fully into consciousness. In some cases THC must be introduced to remove long-term blocks mediated by the cannabinoid system. I propose the "primer/probe" method to test these hypotheses. A "primer" is a drug that selectively activates 5-HT2 (e.g. DOB or MEM) or serotonin-1 (5-HT1) and 5-HT2 (e.g. DOET or 2C-B-fly). A "probe" is a drug that activates a receptor whose corresponding mental organ we wish to load into consciousness in order to understand its role in the mind. The mental organ is loaded into consciousness when the primer and probe are taken together, but not when taken separately. For example, the blood pressure medications rilmenidine and moxonidine are selective for imidazoline-1 and can be used to test the hypothesis that the entactogenic mental effects of MDMA are due to loading the imidazoline-1 mental organ into consciousness. The primer/probe method is not limited to testing the specific hypothesis about MDMA and imidazoline, but is a general method for studying the role of mental organs in the mind. For example, the role of dopamine mental organs can be studied by using Parkinson's drugs such as ropinirole or pramipexole as probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas S Ray
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73069, United States.
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Abstract
Increasing evidence places Schisandrin B (Sch B) at an important position in nerve protection, indicating that Sch B might play a positive role in the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases. However, there is little information on it. Our studies showed that pretreatment with Sch B could reduce lactate dehydrogenase, malondialdehyde, and reactive oxygen species release and significantly increase the cell viability and the superoxide dismutase level. Sch B (10 μM) markedly inhibited cell apoptosis, whereas LY294002 (20 μM), a phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase inhibitor, blocked the antiapoptotic effect. More importantly, Sch B (10 μM) increased the phosphoprotein kinase B/protein kinase B (Akt) and B-cell lymphoma-2/Bcl-2 associated X protein ratios on preincubation with cells for 2 h, which was then inhibited by LY294002 (20 μM). Results indicate that Sch B can protect PC12 cells from apoptosis by activating the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt signaling pathway and may emerge as a potential drug for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Meijer M, Brandsema JAR, Nieuwenhuis D, Wijnolts FMJ, Dingemans MML, Westerink RHS. Inhibition of Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels After Subchronic and Repeated Exposure of PC12 Cells to Different Classes of Insecticides. Toxicol Sci 2015; 147:607-17. [PMID: 26187449 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfv154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that acute inhibition of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) is a common mode of action for (sub)micromolar concentrations of chemicals, including insecticides. However, because human exposure to chemicals is usually chronic and repeated, we investigated if selected insecticides from different chemical classes (organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, carbamates, and neonicotinoids) also disturb calcium homeostasis after subchronic (24 h) exposure and after a subsequent (repeated) acute exposure. Effects on calcium homeostasis were investigated with single-cell fluorescence (Fura-2) imaging of PC12 cells. Cells were depolarized with high-K(+) saline to study effects of subchronic or repeated exposure on VGCC-mediated Ca(2+) influx. The results demonstrate that except for carbaryl and imidacloprid, all selected insecticides inhibited depolarization (K(+))-evoked Ca(2+) influx after subchronic exposure (IC50's: approximately 1-10 µM) in PC12 cells. These inhibitory effects were not or only slowly reversible. Moreover, repeated exposure augmented the inhibition of the K(+)-evoked increase in intracellular calcium concentration induced by subchronic exposure to cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, chlorpyrifos-oxon, and endosulfan (IC50's: approximately 0.1-4 µM). In rat primary cortical cultures, acute and repeated chlorpyrifos exposure also augmented inhibition of VGCCs compared with subchronic exposure. In conclusion, compared with subchronic exposure, repeated exposure increases the potency of insecticides to inhibit VGCCs. However, the potency of insecticides to inhibit VGCCs upon repeated exposure was comparable with the inhibition previously observed following acute exposure, with the exception of chlorpyrifos. The data suggest that an acute exposure paradigm is sufficient for screening chemicals for effects on VGCCs and that PC12 cells are a sensitive model for detection of effects on VGCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke Meijer
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joske A R Brandsema
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Desirée Nieuwenhuis
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Fiona M J Wijnolts
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Milou M L Dingemans
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Remco H S Westerink
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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MDMA administration during adolescence exacerbates MPTP-induced cognitive impairment and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:4007-18. [PMID: 24687411 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3536-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE We have recently shown that chronic exposure to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy") of adolescent mice exacerbates dopamine neurotoxicity and neuroinflammatory effects elicited by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in the substantia nigra and striatum at adulthood. OBJECTIVES The present study investigated whether the amplification of MPTP effects by previous treatment with MDMA extends to the limbic and cortical regions and consequently affects cognitive performance. METHODS Mice received MDMA (10 mg/kg, twice a day/twice a week) for 9 weeks, followed by MPTP (20 mg/kg × 4 administrations), starting 2 weeks after MDMA discontinuation. Complement type 3 receptor (CD11b) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were evaluated by immunohistochemistry in both the hippocampus and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) to measure microglia and astroglia activation. These neurochemical evaluations were paired with an assessment of cognitive performance by means of the novel object recognition (NOR) and spontaneous alternation tasks. RESULTS MPTP administration to MDMA-pretreated mice elicited a stronger activation of CD11b and GFAP in both the hippocampus and the mPFC compared with either substance administered alone. Furthermore, NOR performance was lower in MDMA-pretreated mice administered MPTP compared with mice that received either substance alone. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that MDMA-MPTP negative interactions extend to the limbic and cortical regions and may result in cognitive impairment, providing further evidence that exposure to MDMA may amplify the effects of later neurotoxic insults.
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de Groot MW, Westerink RH. Chemically-induced oxidative stress increases the vulnerability of PC12 cells to rotenone-induced toxicity. Neurotoxicology 2014; 43:102-109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2014.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Chiu WT, Lin CM, Tsai TC, Wu CW, Tsai CL, Lin SH, Chen JJJ. Real-time electrochemical recording of dopamine release under optogenetic stimulation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89293. [PMID: 24586667 PMCID: PMC3930700 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Dopaminergic PC12 cells can synthesize and release dopamine, providing a good cellular model for investigating dopamine regulation. Optogenetic stimulation of channelrhodopsin-2 provides high spatial and temporal precision for selective stimulation as a powerful neuromodulation tool for neuroscience studies. The aim of this study is to measure dopamine release from dopaminergic PC12 cells under optogenetic stimulation using electrochemical recording of self-assembled monolayers modified microelectrode with amperometric measurement in real time. The activation of PC12 cells under various optogenetic stimulation schemes are characterized by measuring single-cell Ca2+ imaging. After 10 seconds of optogenetic stimulation, the evoked intracellular Ca2+ level and dopamine current of channelrhodopsin-2-transfected PC12 cells were 1.6- and 3.5-fold higher than those of the control cells. The optogenetic stimulation effects on Ca2+ influx and dopamine release were 81% and 63% inhibition by using a Ca2+ channel antagonist Nifedipine. The results indicate that optogenetic stimulation can evoke voltage-gated Ca2+ channel-dependent dopamine exocytosis from PC12 cells in a cell specific, temporally precise and dose-dependent manner. This proposed dopamine recording system can be developed to be a good cell model for dopamine regulation and drug screening in vitro, or dopaminergic cell implantation therapy in vivo using optogenetic stimulation in a precise and convenient way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Tai Chiu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Medical Device Innovation Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Che-Ming Lin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Tien-Chun Tsai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Wei Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Lin Tsai
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Hsiang Lin
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Jin Jason Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Medical Device Innovation Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- National Applied Research Laboratories, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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Hondebrink L, Tan S, Hermans E, van Kleef RG, Meulenbelt J, Westerink RH. Additive inhibition of human α1β2γ2 GABAA receptors by mixtures of commonly used drugs of abuse. Neurotoxicology 2013; 35:23-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Revised: 11/23/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Trouillon R, Passarelli MK, Wang J, Kurczy ME, Ewing AG. Chemical Analysis of Single Cells. Anal Chem 2012; 85:522-42. [DOI: 10.1021/ac303290s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Trouillon
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Melissa K. Passarelli
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jun Wang
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Michael E. Kurczy
- Chalmers University, Department of Chemistry
and Biological Engineering, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Andrew G. Ewing
- University of Gothenburg, Department of Chemistry and Molecular
Biology, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
- Chalmers University, Department of Chemistry
and Biological Engineering, 41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
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Rietjens SJ, Hondebrink L, Westerink RHS, Meulenbelt J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): interindividual differences due to polymorphisms and drug-drug interactions. Crit Rev Toxicol 2012; 42:854-76. [PMID: 23030234 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2012.725029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Clinical outcome following 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) intake ranges from mild entactogenic effects to a life-threatening intoxication. Despite ongoing research, the clinically most relevant mechanisms causing acute MDMA-induced adverse effects remain largely unclear. This complicates the triage and treatment of MDMA users needing medical care. The user's genetic profile and interactions resulting from polydrug use are key factors that modulate the individual response to MDMA and influence MDMA pharmacokinetics and dynamics, and thus clinical outcome. Polymorphisms in CYP2D6, resulting in poor metabolism status, as well as co-exposure of MDMA with specific substances (e.g. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)) can increase MDMA plasma levels, but can also decrease the formation of toxic metabolites and subsequent cellular damage. While pre-exposure to e.g. SSRIs can increase MDMA plasma levels, clinical effects (e.g. blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature) can be reduced, possibly due to a pharmacodynamic interaction at the serotonin reuptake transporter (SERT). Pretreatment with inhibitors of the dopamine or norepinephrine reuptake transporter (DAT or NET), 5-HT(2A) or α-β adrenergic receptor antagonists or antipsychotics prior to MDMA exposure can also decrease one or more MDMA-induced physiological and/or subjective effects. Carvedilol, ketanserin and haloperidol can reduce multiple MDMA-induced clinical and neurotoxic effects. Thus besides supportive care, i.e. sedation using benzodiazepines, intravenous hydration, aggressive cooling and correction of electrolytes, it is worthwhile to investigate the usefulness of carvedilol, ketanserin and haloperidol in the treatment of MDMA-intoxicated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia J Rietjens
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Division of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine, National Poisons Information Center (NVIC), P.O. box 85500, 3508 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Nicola VG, Vischer N, Donzelli M, Krähenbühl S, Grouzmann E, Huwyler J, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Duloxetine inhibits effects of MDMA ("ecstasy") in vitro and in humans in a randomized placebo-controlled laboratory study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36476. [PMID: 22574166 PMCID: PMC3344887 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
This study assessed the effects of the serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) transporter inhibitor duloxetine on the effects of 3,4–methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) in vitro and in 16 healthy subjects. The clinical study used a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, four-session, crossover design. In vitro, duloxetine blocked the release of both 5-HT and NE by MDMA or by its metabolite 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine from transmitter-loaded human cells expressing the 5-HT or NE transporter. In humans, duloxetine inhibited the effects of MDMA including elevations in circulating NE, increases in blood pressure and heart rate, and the subjective drug effects. Duloxetine inhibited the pharmacodynamic response to MDMA despite an increase in duloxetine-associated elevations in plasma MDMA levels. The findings confirm the important role of MDMA-induced 5-HT and NE release in the psychotropic effects of MDMA. Duloxetine may be useful in the treatment of psychostimulant dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric M. Hysek
- Psychopharmacology Research Group, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Linda D. Simmler
- Psychopharmacology Research Group, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Valentina G. Nicola
- Psychopharmacology Research Group, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nerina Vischer
- Psychopharmacology Research Group, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Massimiliano Donzelli
- Psychopharmacology Research Group, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Psychopharmacology Research Group, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Eric Grouzmann
- Divisions of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Huwyler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marius C. Hoener
- Pharmaceuticals Division, Neuroscience Research, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Psychopharmacology Research Group, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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16
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Hendriks HS, van Kleef RGDM, van den Berg M, Westerink RHS. Multiple novel modes of action involved in the in vitro neurotoxic effects of tetrabromobisphenol-A. Toxicol Sci 2012; 128:235-46. [PMID: 22547355 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfs136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotoxicological data on the widely used brominated flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) is limited. Since recent studies indicated that inhibitory GABA(A) and excitatory α(4)β(2) nicotinic acetylcholine (nACh) receptors are sensitive targets for persistent organic pollutants, we investigated the effects of TBBPA on these receptors, expressed in Xenopus oocytes, using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. Our results demonstrate that TBBPA acts as full (≥ 10 μM) and partial (≥ 0.1 μM) agonist on human GABA(A) receptors, whereas it acts as antagonist (≥ 10 μM) on human α(4)β(2) nACh receptors. Next, neuronal B35 cells were used to further study the effects of TBBPA on calcium-permeable nACh receptors using single-cell fluorescent calcium imaging. These results demonstrate that TBBPA (≥ 1 μM) inhibits acetylcholine (ACh) receptors as evidenced by a reduction in the ACh-evoked increases in the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)). Additionally, TBBPA (> 1 μM) induced a strong and concentration-dependent increase in basal [Ca(2+)](i) in B35 cells. Similarly, TBBPA (> 1 μM) increases basal [Ca(2+)](i) in dopaminergic PC12 cells. This increase is also evident under calcium-free conditions, indicating it originates from intracellular calcium stores. Moreover, depolarization-evoked increases in [Ca(2+)](i) are strongly reduced by TBBPA (≥ 1 μM), indicating TBBPA-induced inhibition of voltage-gated calcium channels. Our in vitro studies thus demonstrate that TBBPA exerts several adverse effects on functional neurotransmission endpoints with effect concentrations that are only two orders of magnitude below the highest cord serum concentrations. Although epidemiological proof for adverse TBBPA effects is lacking, our data justify the quest for flame retardants with reduced neurotoxic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hester S Hendriks
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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17
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Hondebrink L, Meulenbelt J, Rietjens SJ, Meijer M, Westerink RH. Methamphetamine, amphetamine, MDMA (‘ecstasy’), MDA and mCPP modulate electrical and cholinergic input in PC12 cells. Neurotoxicology 2012; 33:255-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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18
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Heusinkveld HJ, Westerink RHS. Organochlorine insecticides lindane and dieldrin and their binary mixture disturb calcium homeostasis in dopaminergic PC12 cells. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:1842-1848. [PMID: 22191981 DOI: 10.1021/es203303r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Current hypotheses link long-term environmental exposure of humans to persistent organochlorine (OC) insecticides lindane (HCH) and dieldrin (HEOD) to the development of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease. Primary adverse neurological effects of these insecticides are directed at inhibition of GABA(A) and glycine receptors, although GABA-independent effects have also been reported. In this paper we describe the effect of dieldrin and a binary mixture of dieldrin and lindane on a critical parameter of neuronal function and survival, i.e., intracellular calcium homeostasis. The intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) has been monitored using real-time single-cell fluorescence microscopy in dopaminergic PC12 cells loaded with the calcium-sensitive dye Fura-2. The results demonstrate that nanomolar concentrations of dieldrin time- and concentration-dependently inhibit depolarization-evoked influx of Ca(2+). Co-exposure of PC12 cells to a mixture of dieldrin and lindane revealed an additive inhibition of the depolarization-evoked increase in [Ca(2+)](i), whereas the lindane-induced increase in basal [Ca(2+)](i) is inhibited by dieldrin. The combined findings indicate that dieldrin and binary mixtures of organochlorines affect [Ca(2+)](i) already at concentrations below commonly accepted effect concentrations and close to human internal dose levels. Consequently, current findings illustrate the need to take mixtures of OC insecticides into account in human risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harm J Heusinkveld
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.177, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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19
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Langeveld WT, Meijer M, Westerink RHS. Differential effects of 20 non-dioxin-like PCBs on basal and depolarization-evoked intracellular calcium levels in PC12 cells. Toxicol Sci 2012; 126:487-96. [PMID: 22218490 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs) are environmental pollutants that are well known for their neurotoxic effects. Numerous in vitro studies reported PCB-induced increases in the basal intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)), and in vivo NDL-PCB neurotoxicity appears at least partly mediated by these disturbances. However, effects of NDL-PCBs on depolarization-evoked calcium influx are poorly investigated, and effects of several congeners, including PCB53, on calcium homeostasis are still unknown. We therefore studied the effects of 20 selected NDL-PCBs on basal and depolarization-evoked [Ca(2+)](i) in fura-2-loaded PC12 cells using single-cell fluorescence microscopy. The results demonstrate that hexa- and heptachlorobiphenyls (with the exception of PCB136) were unable to affect basal and depolarization-evoked [Ca(2+)](i). However, most tri- and tetrachlorinated as well as some pentachlorinated NDL-PCBs (at 1 and 10μM) increased basal [Ca(2+)](i) during a 15-min exposure. The increase in basal [Ca(2+)](i), which differed in kinetics for the different congeners, depended partly on influx of extracellular calcium and calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum. Importantly, all tested tri- and tetrachlorinated biphenyls and some pentachlorinated NDL-PCBs (PCB95, PCB100, and PCB104) reduced depolarization-evoked [Ca(2+)](i), with PCB51 and PCB53 being most potent (near complete inhibition at 1μM). The reduction in depolarization-evoked calcium influx depended on the exposure duration but not on the foregoing PCB-induced increase in basal [Ca(2+)](i). The inhibition of voltage-gated calcium channels is a novel and sensitive mode of action for NDL-PCBs that contributes to the disturbances in calcium homeostasis and likely is related to NDL-PCB-induced (developmental) neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy T Langeveld
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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20
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Hysek CM, Brugger R, Simmler LD, Bruggisser M, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Effects of the α₂-adrenergic agonist clonidine on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in healthy volunteers. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 340:286-94. [PMID: 22034656 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.188425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism of action of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) involves the carrier-mediated and potentially vesicular release of monoamines. We assessed the effects of the sympatholytic α₂-adrenergic receptor agonist clonidine (150 μg p.o.), which inhibits the neuronal vesicular release of norepinephrine, on the cardiovascular and psychotropic response to MDMA (125 mg p.o.) in 16 healthy subjects. The study used a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design with four experimental sessions. The administration of clonidine 1 h before MDMA reduced the MDMA-induced increases in plasma norepinephrine concentrations and blood pressure but only to the extent that clonidine lowered norepinephrine levels and blood pressure compared with placebo. Thus, no interaction was found between the cardiovascular effects of the two drugs. Clonidine did not affect the psychotropic effects or pharmacokinetics of MDMA. The lack of an interaction of the effects of clonidine and MDMA indicates that vesicular release of norepinephrine, which is inhibited by clonidine, does not critically contribute to the effects of MDMA in humans. Although clonidine may be used in the treatment of stimulant-induced hypertensive reactions, the present findings do not support a role for α₂-adrenergic receptor agonists in the prevention of psychostimulant dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric M Hysek
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Departments of Biomedicine and Internal Medicine, University Hospital and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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