Maintaining stable memory engrams: new roles for Nogo-A in the CNS

Nogo‑A/NgR signaling regulates stemness in cancer stem‑like cells derived from U87MG glioblastoma cells

Neurite outgrowth inhibitor A (Nogo-A), a member of the reticulon 4 family, is an axon regeneration inhibitor that is negatively associated with the malignancy of oligodendroglial tumors. It has been suggested that the Nogo-A/Nogo Receptor (NgR) pathway plays a promoting effect in regulating cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) derived from glioblastoma, indicating that Nogo-A could exert different roles in CSCs than those in parental cancer cells. In the present study, CSCs were generated from the human Uppsala 87 malignant glioma (U87MG) cell line. These U87MG-CSCs were characterized by the upregulation of CD44 and CD133, which are two markers of stemness. The expression levels of Nogo-A and the differentiation of U87MG-CSCs were investigated. In addition, the proliferation, invasion and colony formation U87MG-CSCs were examined. Using culture in serum-containing medium, U87MG-CSCs were differentiated into neuron-like cells specifically expressing MAP2, β-III-tubulin and nestin. Nogo-A was upregulated in U87MG-CSCs compared with parental cells. Knockdown of Nogo-A and inhibition of the Nogo-A/NgR signaling pathway in U87MG-CSCs markedly decreased cell viability, cell cycle entry, invasion and tumor formation, indicating that Nogo-A could regulate U87MG-CSC function. Moreover, Nogo-A was involved in intracellular ATP synthesis and scavenging of accumulated reactive oxygen species. Nogo-A/NgR pathway exerted protective effects against hypoxia-induced non-apoptotic and apoptotic cell death. These results suggest that Nogo-A plays an important role in regulating U87MG-CSCs via the Nogo-A/NgR signaling pathway. Nogo-A may also different roles in U87MG-CSCs compared with their parental cells.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Investigation of Neuroplasticity After Ischemic Stroke in Tetramethylpyrazine-Treated Rats

Ischemic stroke elicits white matter injury typically signed by axonal disintegration and demyelination; thus, the development of white matter reorganization is needed. 2,3,5,6-Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) is widely used to treat ischemic stroke. This study was aimed to investigate whether TMP could protect the white matter and promote axonal repair after cerebral ischemia. Male Sprague–Dawley rats were subjected to permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and treated with TMP (10, 20, 40 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for 14 days. The motor function related to gait was evaluated by the gait analysis system. Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was conducted to noninvasively identify gray-white matter structural integrity, axonal reorganization, and cerebral blood flow (CBF), followed by histological analysis. The expressions of axonal growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43), synaptophysin (SYN), axonal growth-inhibitory signals, and guidance factors were measured by Western blot. Our results showed TMP reduced infarct volume, relieved gray-white matter damage, promoted axonal remodeling, and restored CBF along the peri-infarct cortex, external capsule, and internal capsule. These MRI findings were confirmed by histopathological data. Moreover, motor function, especially gait impairment, was improved by TMP treatment. Notably, TMP upregulated GAP-43 and SYN and enhanced axonal guidance cues such as Netrin-1/DCC and Slit-2/Robo-1 but downregulated intrinsic growth-inhibitory signals NogoA/NgR/RhoA/ROCK-2. Taken together, our data indicated that TMP facilitated poststroke axonal remodeling and motor functional recovery. Moreover, our findings suggested that TMP restored local CBF, augmented guidance cues, and restrained intrinsic growth-inhibitory signals, all of which might improve the intracerebral microenvironment of ischemic areas and then benefit white matter remodeling.

Nogo-A Is a Potential Prognostic Marker for Spinal Cord Injury

Objective

Spinal cord injury (SCI) has become prevalent worldwide in recent years, and its prognosis is poor and the pathological mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Nogo-A is one of the isoforms of the neurite outgrowth inhibitory protein reticulon 4. The purpose of this study was to determine whether Nogo-A could be used as a marker for predicting the prognosis of SCI.

Methods

We screened eligible SCI patients and controls based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. We also collected baseline clinical information and peripheral venous blood of the enrolled population. Participants' baseline serum Nogo-A levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) scale was used to evaluate the prognosis of SCI patients after 3 months.

Results

Baseline clinical information (age; gender; smoking; drinking; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; fasting blood glucose; WBC, white blood cells; CRP, C-reactive protein) of SCI patients and controls were not statistically significant academic differences (p > 0.05). The baseline serum Nogo-A levels of SCI patients and controls were 192.7 ± 13.9 ng/ml and 263.1 ± 22.4 ng/ml, respectively, and there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups (p < 0.05). We divided SCI patients into 4 groups according to their baseline serum Nogo-A quartile levels and analyzed their relationship with ASIA scores. The trend test results showed that with the increase of Nogo-A level, the ASIA sensation score and ASIA motor score were significantly decreased (p < 0.001). Multivariate regression analysis showed that serum Nogo-A levels remained a potential cause affecting the prognosis of SCI after adjusting for confounding factors in multiple models.

Conclusions

Serum Nogo-A levels were significantly elevated in SCI patients. Moreover, elevated Nogo-A levels often indicate poor prognosis and can be used as a marker to predict the prognosis of SCI.

Nogo-A Modulates the Synaptic Excitation of Hippocampal Neurons in a Ca2+-Dependent Manner

A tight regulation of the balance between inhibitory and excitatory synaptic transmission is a prerequisite for synaptic plasticity in neuronal networks. In this context, the neurite growth inhibitor membrane protein Nogo-A modulates synaptic plasticity, strength, and neurotransmitter receptor dynamics. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these actions are unknown. We show that Nogo-A loss-of-function in primary mouse hippocampal cultures by application of a function-blocking antibody leads to higher excitation following a decrease in GABA_ARs at inhibitory and an increase in the GluA1, but not GluA2 AMPAR subunit at excitatory synapses. This unbalanced regulation of AMPAR subunits results in the incorporation of Ca²⁺-permeable GluA2-lacking AMPARs and increased intracellular Ca²⁺ levels due to a higher Ca²⁺ influx without affecting its release from the internal stores. Increased neuronal activation upon Nogo-A loss-of-function prompts the phosphorylation of the transcription factor CREB and the expression of c-Fos. These results contribute to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of the excitation/inhibition balance and thereby of plasticity in the brain.

Axon regeneration after optic nerve injury in rats can be improved via PirB knockdown in the retina

BACKGROUND

In the central nervous system (CNS), three types of myelin-associated inhibitors (MAIs) exert major inhibitory effects on nerve regeneration: Nogo-A, myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), and oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein (OMgp). MAIs have two co-receptors, Nogo receptor (NgR) and paired immunoglobulin-like receptor B (PirB). Existing studies confirm that inhibiting NgR only exerted a modest disinhibitory effect in CNS. However, the inhibitory effects of PirB on nerve regeneration after binding to MAIs are controversial too. We aimed to further investigate the effect of PirB knockdown on the neuroprotection and axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) after optic nerve injury in rats.

METHODS

The differential expression of PirB in the retina was observed via immunofluorescence and western blotting after 1, 3, and 7 days of optic nerve injury (ONI). The retina was locally transfected with adeno-associated virus (AAV) PirB shRNA, then, the distribution of virus in tissues and cells was observed 21 days after AAV transfection to confirm the efficiency of PirB knockdown. Level of P-Stat3 and expressions of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) were detected via western blotting. RGCs were directly labeled with cholera toxin subunit B (CTB). The new axons of the optic nerve were specifically labeled with growth associated protein-43 (GAP43) via immunofluorescence. Flash visual evoked potential (FVEP) was used to detect the P1 and N1 latency, as well as N1-P1, P1-N2 amplitude to confirm visual function.

RESULTS

PirB expression in the retina was significantly increased after ONI. PirB knockdown was successful and significantly promoted P-Stat3 level and CNTF expression in the retina. PirB knockdown promoted the regeneration of optic nerve axons and improved the visual function indexes such as N1-P1 and P1-N2 amplitude.

CONCLUSIONS

PirB is one of the key molecules that inhibit the regeneration of the optic nerve, and inhibition of PirB has an excellent effect on promoting nerve regeneration, which allows the use of PirB as a target molecule to promote functional recovery after ONI.

Exercise-induced Nogo-A influences rodent motor learning in a time-dependent manner

The adult, mature central nervous system (CNS) has limited plasticity. Physical exercising can counteract this limitation by inducing plasticity and fostering processes such as learning, memory consolidation and formation. Little is known about the molecular factors that govern these mechanisms, and how they are connected with exercise. In this study, we used immunohistochemical and behavioral analyses to investigate how running wheel exercise affects expression of the neuronal plasticity-inhibiting protein Nogo-A in the rat cortex, and how it influences motor learning in vivo. Following one week of exercise, rats exhibited a decrease in Nogo-A levels, selectively in motor cortex layer 2/3, but not in layer 5. Nogo-A protein levels returned to baseline after two weeks of running wheel exercise. In a skilled motor task (forelimb-reaching), administration of Nogo-A function-blocking antibodies over the course of the first training week led to improved motor learning. By contrast, Nogo-A antibody application over two weeks of training resulted in impaired learning. Our findings imply a bimodal, time-dependent function of Nogo-A in exercise-induced neuronal plasticity: While an activity-induced suppression of the plasticity-inhibiting protein Nogo-A appears initially beneficial for enhanced motor learning, presumably by allowing greater plasticity in establishing novel synaptic connections, this process is not sustained throughout continued exercise. Instead, upregulation of Nogo-A over the course of the second week of running wheel exercise in rats implies that Nogo-A is required for consolidation of acquired motor skills during the delayed memory consolidation process, possibly by inhibiting ongoing neuronal morphological reorganization to stabilize established synaptic pathways. Our findings suggest that Nogo-A downregulation allows leaning to occur, i.e. opens a 'learning window', while its later upregulation stabilizes the learnt engrams. These findings underline the importance of appropriately timing of application of Nogo-A antibodies in future clinical trials that aim to foster memory performance while avoiding adverse effects.

Nogo-A/S1PR2 Signaling Pathway Inactivation Decreases Microvascular Damage and Enhances Microvascular Regeneration in PDMCI Mice

The incidence of mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease (PDMCI) is as high as 18-55%. However, the pathological mechanism of PDMCI is not yet clear. Our previous research showed that microvascular pathology and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion participated in the occurrence and development of PDMCI. Nogo-A has been suggested to be a negative regulator of microvascular regeneration in the central nervous system. Moreover, few insights have illuminated the mechanisms of Nogo-A and microvascular pathology in PDMCI. Therefore, we hypothesized that Nogo-A might be involved in the negative regulation of PDMCI angiogenesis. In this study, C57BL/6J mice were injected with Nogo-A-specific short hairpin RNA (shRNA-Nogo-A) in the lateral ventricle and intraperitoneally injected with a combination of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and probenecid. Subjects were classified into the following five groups for the Morris water maze test: control (CON), CON + shRNA-GFP, CON + shRNA-Nogo-A, PDMCI, and PDMCI + shRNA-Nogo-A. Furthermore, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated dextran, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), immunofluorescence and Western blot analyses were performed. The results showed that MPTP could cause spatial memory and behavioral impairment, significant microvascular impairment and increased Nogo-A expression. When Nogo-A expression was downregulated, the cognitive and microvascular impairments were alleviated, and the expression of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2) and the RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway were inhibited. These findings suggested that Nogo-A could bind to S1PR2, activate related signaling pathways, and lead to the inhibition of vascular remodeling in PDMCI mice. This study indicated that Nogo-A downregulation could mediate microvascular remodeling and provide further insights into the pathogenesis of PDMCI.

Identification of a new functional domain of Nogo-A that promotes inflammatory pain and inhibits neurite growth through binding to NgR1

Nogo-A is a key inhibitory molecule to axon regeneration, and plays diverse roles in other pathological conditions, such as stroke, schizophrenia, and neurodegenerative diseases. Nogo-66 and Nogo-Δ20 fragments are two known functional domains of Nogo-A, which act through the Nogo-66 receptor (NgR1) and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2), respectively. Here, we reported a new functional domain of Nogo-A, Nogo-A aa 846-861, was identified in the Nogo-A-specific segment that promotes complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflammatory pain. Intrathecal injection of its antagonist peptide 846-861PE or the specific antibody attenuated the CFA-induced inflammatory heat hyperalgesia. The 846-861 PE reduced the content of transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily member 1 (TRPV1) in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and decreased the response of DRG neurons to capsaicin. These effects were accompanied by a reduction in LIMK/cofilin phosphorylation and actin polymerization. GST pull-down and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assays both showed that Nogo-A aa 846-861 bound to NgR1. Moreover, we demonstrated that Nogo-A aa 846-861 inhibited neurite outgrowth from cortical neurons and DRG explants. We concluded that Nogo-A aa 846-861 is a novel ligand of NgR1, which activates the downstream signaling pathways that inhibit axon growth and promote inflammatory pain.

Effects of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells transplantation on the recovery of neurological functions and the expression of Nogo-A, NgR, Rhoa, and ROCK in rats with experimentally-induced convalescent cerebral ischemia

Background

To investigate the effects of intravenous transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) on neurological function in rats with experimentally-induced convalescent cerebral ischemia and the expression of Nogo-A, NgR, Rhoa, and ROCK expression.

Methods

BMSCs were isolated and cultured in vitro using the whole bone marrow adherent method. Eighty-one adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided at random into three groups: the sham-operated group, the cerebral ischemia group, and the BMSC treatment group (n=27 rats per group). In the latter two groups, the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was performed by the modified Zea Longa method. After MCAO, rats in the sham-operated and cerebral ischemic groups were injected with 1 mL of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) via the tail vein. In the BMSC-treatment group, 1 mL of the BMSC suspension (containing 3×10⁶ BMSCs) was injected through the rats’ femoral vein. At 12, 24, and 72 h after BMSC transplantation, modified neurological deficit scores (mNSS) were used to assess neurological function. TTC (2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride) staining was used to measure the ischemic lesion volume, and the distribution of Nogo-A protein was observed by immunohistochemistry. The expressions of Nogo-A, NgR, Rhoa, and ROCK were detected by Western blot.

Results

At 72 h after BMSC transplantation, the mNSS scores were significantly lower in the BMSC treatment group than those in the cerebral ischemia group (7.50±0.55 vs. 8.67±0.52, P<0.01), and the ischemic lesions volume was significantly reduced. The expressions of Nogo-A, NgR, RhoA, and ROCK were significantly decreased compared with the controls (P<0.05).

Conclusions

The transplantation of BMSCs can improve neurological function in rats after convalescent cerebral ischemia, and their therapeutic effect may be related to the downregulation of Nogo-A, NgR, RhoA, and ROCK expression.

[Inhibitors of CNS regeneration, their physiological role and participation in pathogenesis of diseases]

The review is devoted to axon growth inhibitors in the CNS, including a physiological role of myelin-associated proteins (Nogo-A, MAG, OMgp) and their involvement in the pathogenesis of various diseases (spinal injuries, stroke, neurodegenerations).

Nogo-66 Restricts Synaptic Strengthening via Lingo1 and the ROCK2-Cofilin Pathway to Control Actin Dynamics

Nogo-A restricts long-term potentiation (LTP) at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 pathway in the adult hippocampus via 2 extracellular domains: Nogo-A-Δ20 and Nogo-66. Nogo-66 signals via Nogo Receptor 1 (NgR1) to regulate synaptic function. Whether the NgR1 coreceptors Lingo1 and p75NTR are involved in the signaling in this context is still not known. Moreover, the intracellular cascade mediating the activity of Nogo-66 in restricting LTP is unexplored. We combine electrophysiology and biochemistry in acute hippocampal slices and demonstrate that a loss of function for Lingo1 results in a significant increase in LTP levels at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 pathway, and that Lingo1 is the NgR1 coreceptor mediating the role of Nogo-66 in restricting LTP. Our data show that p75NTR is not involved in mediating the Nogo-66 effect on LTP. Moreover, loss of function for p75NTR and NgR1 equally attenuate LTD, suggesting that p75NTR might mediate the NgR1-dependent regulation of LTD, independently of Nogo-66. Finally, our results indicate that Nogo-66 signaling limits LTP via the ROCK2-Cofilin pathway to control the dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton. The present results elucidate the signaling pathway activated by Nogo-66 to control LTP and contribute to the understanding of how Nogo-A stabilizes the neural circuits to limit activity-dependent plasticity events in the mature hippocampus.

Electroacupuncture promotes axonal regeneration in rats with focal cerebral ischemia through the downregulation of Nogo-A/NgR/RhoA/ROCK signaling

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of electroacupuncture (EA) on the axonal regeneration environment following cerebral ischemia injury and to investigate whether it was associated with Nogo-A/Nogo receptor (NgR)/RhoA/Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) signaling. Using a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia, the effects of EA at the Quchi (LI11) and Zusanli (ST36) acupoints on axonal growth inhibitory protein and axonal growth factors were assessed and the underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated. It was found that EA at the Quchi and Zusanli acupoints significantly improved neurological deficit scores following ischemia (P<0.05), and reduced the cerebral infarct volume. Moreover, it was demonstrated that crucial signaling molecules in the Nogo-A signaling pathway were regulated by EA. These results suggest that EA provides a less inhibitory environment for axonal regeneration following cerebral ischemia through inhibition of Nogo-A/NgR/RhoA/ROCK signaling.

Cellular and System Biology of Memory: Timing, Molecules, and Beyond

The storage of information in the mammalian nervous systems is dependent on a delicate balance between change and stability of neuronal networks. The induction and maintenance of processes that lead to changes in synaptic strength to a multistep process which can lead to long-lasting changes, which starts and ends with a highly choreographed and perfectly timed dance of molecules in different cell types of the central nervous system. This is accompanied by synchronization of specific networks, resulting in the generation of characteristic "macroscopic" rhythmic electrical fields, whose characteristic frequencies correspond to certain activity and information-processing states of the brain. Molecular events and macroscopic fields influence each other reciprocally. We review here cellular processes of synaptic plasticity, particularly functional and structural changes, and focus on timing events that are important for the initial memory acquisition, as well as mechanisms of short- and long-term memory storage. Then, we cover the importance of epigenetic events on the long-time range. Furthermore, we consider how brain rhythms at the network level participate in processes of information storage and by what means they participating in it. Finally, we examine memory consolidation at the system level during processes of sleep.

Spatiotemporal expression of Nogo-66 receptor after focal cerebral ischemia

NgR, the receptor for the neurite outgrowth inhibitor Nogo-66, plays a critical role in the plasticity and regeneration of the nervous system after injury such as ischemic stroke. In the present study, we used immunohistochemistry to investigate the regional expression of NgR in rat brain following middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). NgR protein expression was not observed in the center of the lesion, but was elevated in the marginal zone compared with control and sham-operated rats. The cerebral cortex and hippocampus (CA1, CA2, and CA3) showed the greatest expression of NgR. Furthermore, NgR expression was higher in the ipsilesional hemisphere than on the control side in the same coronal section. Although time-dependent changes in NgR expression across brain regions had their own characteristics, the overall trend complied with the following rules: NgR expression changes with time showed two peaks and one trough; the first peak in expression appeared between 1 and 3 days after MCAO; expression declined at 5 days; and the second peak occurred at 28 days.

Non-canonical actions of Nogo-A and its receptors

Nogo-A is a myelin associated protein and one of the most potent neurite growth inhibitors in the central nervous system. Interference with Nogo-A signaling has thus been investigated as therapeutic target to promote functional recovery in CNS injuries. Still, the finding that Nogo-A presents a fairly ubiquitous expression in many types of neurons in different brain regions, in the eye and even in the inner ear suggests for further functions besides the neurite growth repression. Indeed, a growing number of studies identified a variety of functions including regulation of neuronal stem cells, modulation of microglial activity, inhibition of angiogenesis and interference with memory formation. Aim of the present commentary is to draw attention on these less well-known and sometimes controversial roles of Nogo-A. Furthermore, we are addressing the role of Nogo-A in neuropathological conditions such as ischemic stroke, schizophrenia and neurodegenerative diseases.

Insights into the physiological role of CNS regeneration inhibitors

The growth inhibitory nature of injured adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) tissue constitutes a major barrier to robust axonal outgrowth and functional recovery following trauma or disease. Prototypic CNS regeneration inhibitors are broadly expressed in the healthy and injured brain and spinal cord and include myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), the reticulon family member NogoA, oligodendrocyte myelin glycoprotein (OMgp), and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs). These structurally diverse molecules strongly inhibit neurite outgrowth in vitro, and have been most extensively studied in the context of nervous system injury in vivo. The physiological role of CNS regeneration inhibitors in the naïve, or uninjured, CNS remains less well understood, but has received growing attention in recent years and is the focus of this review. CNS regeneration inhibitors regulate myelin development and axon stability, consolidate neuronal structure shaped by experience, and limit activity-dependent modification of synaptic strength. Altered function of CNS regeneration inhibitors is associated with neuropsychiatric disorders, suggesting crucial roles in brain development and health.

Cannabinoid CB1 receptor calibrates excitatory synaptic balance in the mouse hippocampus

The endocannabinoid system negatively regulates the release of various neurotransmitters in an activity-dependent manner, thereby influencing the excitability of neuronal circuits. In the hippocampus, cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is present on both GABAergic and glutamatergic axon terminals. CB1 receptor-deficient mice were previously shown to have increased hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP). In this study, we have investigated the consequences of cell-type-specific deletion of the CB1 receptor on the induction of hippocampal LTP and on CA1 pyramidal cell morphology. Deletion of CB1 receptor in GABAergic neurons in GABA-CB1-KO mice leads to a significantly decreased hippocampal LTP compared with WT controls. Concomitantly, CA1 pyramidal neurons have a significantly reduced dendritic branching both on the apical and on the basal dendrites. Moreover, the average spine density on the apical dendrites of CA1 pyramidal neurons is significantly diminished. In contrast, in mice lacking CB1 receptor in glutamatergic cells (Glu-CB1-KO), hippocampal LTP is significantly enhanced and CA1 pyramidal neurons show an increased branching and an increased spine density in the apical dendritic region. Together, these results indicate that the CB1 receptor signaling system both on inhibitory and excitatory neurons controls functional and structural synaptic plasticity of pyramidal neurons in the hippocampal CA1 region to maintain an appropriate homeostatic state upon neuronal activation. Consequently, if the CB1 receptor is lost in either neuronal population, an allostatic shift will occur leading to a long-term dysregulation of neuronal functions.

Function of Nogo-A/Nogo-A receptor in Alzheimer's disease

Nogo-A is a protein inhibiting axonal regeneration, which is considered a major obstacle to nerve regeneration after injury in mammals. Rapid progress has been achieved in new physiopathological function of Nogo-A in Alzheimer's disease in the past decade. Recent research shows that through binding to Nogo-A receptor, Nogo-A plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Particularly, Nogo-A/Nogo-A receptors modulate the generation of amyloid β-protein (Aβ), which is thought to be a major cause of AD. This review describes the recent development of Nogo-A, Nogo-A receptor, and downstream signaling involved in AD and pharmacological basis of therapeutic drugs. We concluded the Nogo-A/Nogo-A receptor provide new insight into potential mechanisms and promising therapy strategies in AD.

Non-clinical development of ozanezumab: a humanised antibody targeting the amino terminus of neurite outgrowth inhibitor A (Nogo-A)

Ozanezumab (GSK1223249) is a humanised, Fc-disabled, monoclonal antibody (mAb) which targets the amino terminus of Neurite Outgrowth Inhibitor A (Nogo-A) which is currently being developed for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).