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Tandon R, Nasrallah H, Akbarian S, Carpenter WT, DeLisi LE, Gaebel W, Green MF, Gur RE, Heckers S, Kane JM, Malaspina D, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Murray R, Owen M, Smoller JW, Yassin W, Keshavan M. The schizophrenia syndrome, circa 2024: What we know and how that informs its nature. Schizophr Res 2024; 264:1-28. [PMID: 38086109 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2023.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
With new data about different aspects of schizophrenia being continually generated, it becomes necessary to periodically revisit exactly what we know. Along with a need to review what we currently know about schizophrenia, there is an equal imperative to evaluate the construct itself. With these objectives, we undertook an iterative, multi-phase process involving fifty international experts in the field, with each step building on learnings from the prior one. This review assembles currently established findings about schizophrenia (construct, etiology, pathophysiology, clinical expression, treatment) and posits what they reveal about its nature. Schizophrenia is a heritable, complex, multi-dimensional syndrome with varying degrees of psychotic, negative, cognitive, mood, and motor manifestations. The illness exhibits a remitting and relapsing course, with varying degrees of recovery among affected individuals with most experiencing significant social and functional impairment. Genetic risk factors likely include thousands of common genetic variants that each have a small impact on an individual's risk and a plethora of rare gene variants that have a larger individual impact on risk. Their biological effects are concentrated in the brain and many of the same variants also increase the risk of other psychiatric disorders such as bipolar disorder, autism, and other neurodevelopmental conditions. Environmental risk factors include but are not limited to urban residence in childhood, migration, older paternal age at birth, cannabis use, childhood trauma, antenatal maternal infection, and perinatal hypoxia. Structural, functional, and neurochemical brain alterations implicate multiple regions and functional circuits. Dopamine D-2 receptor antagonists and partial agonists improve psychotic symptoms and reduce risk of relapse. Certain psychological and psychosocial interventions are beneficial. Early intervention can reduce treatment delay and improve outcomes. Schizophrenia is increasingly considered to be a heterogeneous syndrome and not a singular disease entity. There is no necessary or sufficient etiology, pathology, set of clinical features, or treatment that fully circumscribes this syndrome. A single, common pathophysiological pathway appears unlikely. The boundaries of schizophrenia remain fuzzy, suggesting the absence of a categorical fit and need to reconceptualize it as a broader, multi-dimensional and/or spectrum construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajiv Tandon
- Department of Psychiatry, WMU Homer Stryker School of Medicine, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, United States of America.
| | - Henry Nasrallah
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Cincinnati, OH 45267, United States of America
| | - Schahram Akbarian
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States of America
| | - William T Carpenter
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States of America
| | - Lynn E DeLisi
- Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge Health Alliance and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - Wolfgang Gaebel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, LVR-Klinikum Dusseldorf, Heinrich-Heine University, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - Michael F Green
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Jane and Terry Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90024, United States of America; Greater Los Angeles Veterans' Administration Healthcare System, United States of America
| | - Raquel E Gur
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States of America
| | - Stephan Heckers
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America
| | - John M Kane
- Department of Psychiatry, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Glen Oaks, NY 11004, United States of America
| | - Dolores Malaspina
- Department of Psychiatry, Neuroscience, Genetics, and Genomics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States of America
| | - Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannhein/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Robin Murray
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, Kings College, London, UK
| | - Michael Owen
- Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, and Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Jordan W Smoller
- Center for Precision Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatric and Neurodevelopmental Unit, Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States of America
| | - Walid Yassin
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| | - Matcheri Keshavan
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
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Gupta S, Lim M, Rajapakse JC. Decoding task specific and task general functional architectures of the brain. Hum Brain Mapp 2022; 43:2801-2816. [PMID: 35224817 PMCID: PMC9120557 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is used to capture complex and dynamic interactions between brain regions while performing tasks. Task related alterations in the brain have been classified as task specific and task general, depending on whether they are particular to a task or common across multiple tasks. Using recent attempts in interpreting deep learning models, we propose an approach to determine both task specific and task general architectures of the functional brain. We demonstrate our methods with a reference‐based decoder on deep learning classifiers trained on 12,500 rest and task fMRI samples from the Human Connectome Project (HCP). The decoded task general and task specific motor and language architectures were validated with findings from previous studies. We found that unlike intersubject variability that is characteristic of functional pathology of neurological diseases, a small set of connections are sufficient to delineate the rest and task states. The nodes and connections in the task general architecture could serve as potential disease biomarkers as alterations in task general brain modulations are known to be implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukrit Gupta
- School of Computer Science and Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore
| | - Marcus Lim
- School of Computer Science and Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore
| | - Jagath C. Rajapakse
- School of Computer Science and Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore
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Abstract
Schizophrenia, characterised by psychotic symptoms and in many cases social and occupational decline, remains an aetiological and therapeutic challenge. Contrary to popular belief, the disorder is modestly more common in men than in women. Nor is the outcome uniformly poor. A division of symptoms into positive, negative, and disorganisation syndromes is supported by factor analysis. Catatonic symptoms are not specific to schizophrenia and so-called first rank symptoms are no longer considered diagnostically important. Cognitive impairment is now recognised as a further clinical feature of the disorder. Lateral ventricular enlargement and brain volume reductions of around 2% are established findings. Brain functional changes occur in different subregions of the frontal cortex and might ultimately be understandable in terms of disturbed interaction among large-scale brain networks. Neurochemical disturbance, involving dopamine function and glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor function, is supported by indirect and direct evidence. The genetic contribution to schizophrenia is now recognised to be largely polygenic. Birth and early life factors also have an important aetiological role. The mainstay of treatment remains dopamine receptor-blocking drugs; a psychological intervention, cognitive behavioural therapy, has relatively small effects on symptoms. The idea that schizophrenia is better regarded as the extreme end of a continuum of psychotic symptoms is currently influential. Other areas of debate include cannabis and childhood adversity as causative factors, whether there is progressive brain change after onset, and the long-term success of early intervention initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameer Jauhar
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College, London, UK
| | - Mandy Johnstone
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College, London, UK; National Psychosis Service, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Peter J McKenna
- FIDMAG Hermanas Hospitalarias Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, Madrid, Spain.
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Salgado-Pineda P, Rodriguez-Jimenez R, Moreno-Ortega M, Dompablo M, Martínez de Aragón A, Salvador R, McKenna PJ, Pomarol-Clotet E, Palomo T. Activation and deactivation patterns in schizophrenia during performance of an fMRI adapted version of the stroop task. J Psychiatr Res 2021; 144:1-7. [PMID: 34583085 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The Stroop task, which examines an aspect of executive function/cognitive control, the ability to inhibit prepotent responses, has been relatively little examined in schizophrenia, and the findings have been inconsistent. Whether performance of this task is associated with failure of de-activation in the disorder is also uncertain. We examined 42 schizophrenic patients and 61 healthy controls during performance of an fMRI-adapted version of the Stroop task, the counting Stroop task. Task-related activations (incongruent > congruent condition) and de-activations (baseline > incongruent) were examined using whole-brain, voxel-based methods. In the healthy controls, task performance was found to be associated with activations in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, among other regions. De-activations were seen in the medial frontal cortex, the middle and posterior cingulate gyrus and cuneus, the parahippocampal gyrus and the hippocampus. The schizophrenic patients did not show reduced activation compared to the healthy controls. They did, however, show failure of de-activation in the medial frontal cortex. Our negative finding with respect to hypoactivation during performance of a task requiring inhibition of prepotent responses suggests that brain functional abnormality in schizophrenia may not affect all aspects of executive function/cognitive control. The finding of medial frontal cortex failure of de-activation adds to existing findings of default mode network dysfunction in the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Salgado-Pineda
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain.
| | - Roberto Rodriguez-Jimenez
- CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain; Department of Psychiatry. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Moreno-Ortega
- CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain; Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute/Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Mónica Dompablo
- CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain; Department of Psychiatry. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; Cardenal Cisneros, Centro de Enseñanza Superior Adscrito a La Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Martínez de Aragón
- Department of Radiology, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda. De Córdoba S/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - Raymond Salvador
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain
| | - Peter J McKenna
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain
| | - Edith Pomarol-Clotet
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain
| | - Tomás Palomo
- CIBERSAM (Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Mental Health), Spain; Department of Psychiatry. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
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Altered neural networks and cognition in a hereditary colon cancer. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2021; 11:137-143. [PMID: 34693396 PMCID: PMC8517154 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2021.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutation of the APC gene presenting with numerous colorectal adenomatous polyps and a near 100% risk of colon cancer. Preliminary research findings from our group indicate that FAP patients experience significant deficits across many cognitive domains. In the current study, fMRI brain metrics in a FAP population and matched controls were used to further the mechanistic understanding of reported cognitive deficits. This research identified and characterized any possible differences in resting brain networks and associations between neural network changes and cognition from 34 participants (18 FAP patients, 16 healthy controls). Functional connectivity analysis was performed using FSL with independent component analysis (ICA) to identify functional networks. Significant differences between cases and controls were observed in 8 well-established resting state networks. With the addition of an aggregate cognitive measure as a covariate, these differences were virtually non-existent, indicating a strong correlation between cognition and brain activity at the network level. The data indicate robust and pervasive effects on functional neural network activity among FAP patients and these effects are likely involved in cognitive deficits associated with this disease.
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Wang X, Cheng B, Roberts N, Wang S, Luo Y, Tian F, Yue S. Shared and distinct brain fMRI response during performance of working memory tasks in adult patients with schizophrenia and major depressive disorder. Hum Brain Mapp 2021; 42:5458-5476. [PMID: 34431584 PMCID: PMC8519858 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Working memory (WM) impairments are common features of psychiatric disorders. A systematic meta-analysis was performed to determine common and disorder-specific brain fMRI response during performance of WM tasks in patients with SZ and patients with MDD relative to healthy controls (HC). Thirty-four published fMRI studies of WM in patients with SZ and 18 published fMRI studies of WM in patients with MDD, including relevant HC, were included in the meta-analysis. In both SZ and MDD there was common stronger fMRI response in right medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and bilateral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which are part of the default mode network (DMN). The effects were of greater magnitude in SZ than MDD, especially in prefrontal-temporal-cingulate-striatal-cerebellar regions. In addition, a disorder-specific weaker fMRI response was observed in right middle frontal gyrus (MFG) in MDD, relative to HC. For both SZ and MDD a significant correlation was observed between the severity of clinical symptoms and lateralized fMRI response relative to HC. These findings indicate that there may be common and distinct anomalies in brain function underlying deficits in WM in SZ and MDD, which may serve as a potential functional neuroimaging-based diagnostic biomarker with value in supporting clinical diagnosis, measuring illness severity and assessing the efficacy of treatments for SZ and MDD at the brain level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuli Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, the Fourth People's Hospital of Chengdu, Chengdu, China
| | - Bochao Cheng
- Department of Radiology, West China Second University Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Neil Roberts
- Edinburgh Imaging Facility, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Song Wang
- Department of Radiology, Huaxi MR Research Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ya Luo
- Mental Health Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Fangfang Tian
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Suping Yue
- Department of Psychiatry, the Fourth People's Hospital of Chengdu, Chengdu, China
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Martin-Subero M, Fuentes-Claramonte P, Salgado-Pineda P, Salavert J, Arevalo A, Bosque C, Sarri C, Guerrero-Pedraza A, Santo-Angles A, Capdevila A, Sarró S, Salvador R, McKenna PJ, Pomarol-Clotet E. Autobiographical memory and default mode network function in schizophrenia: an fMRI study. Psychol Med 2021; 51:121-128. [PMID: 31680659 PMCID: PMC7856411 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291719003052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The brain functional correlates of autobiographical recall are well established, but have been little studied in schizophrenia. Additionally, autobiographical memory is one of a small number of cognitive tasks that activates rather than de-activates the default mode network, which has been found to be dysfunctional in this disorder. METHODS Twenty-seven schizophrenic patients and 30 healthy controls underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while viewing cue words that evoked autobiographical memories. Control conditions included both non-memory-evoking cues and a low level baseline (cross fixation). RESULTS Compared to both non-memory evoking cues and low level baseline, autobiographical recall was associated with activation in default mode network regions in the controls including the medial frontal cortex, the posterior cingulate cortex and the hippocampus, as well as other areas. Clusters of de-activation were seen outside the default mode network. There were no activation differences between the schizophrenic patients and the controls, but the patients showed clusters of failure of de-activation in non-default mode network regions. CONCLUSIONS According to this study, patients with schizophrenia show intact activation of the default mode network and other regions associated with recall of autobiographical memories. The finding of failure of de-activation outside the network suggests that schizophrenia may be associated with a general difficulty in de-activation rather than dysfunction of the default mode network per se.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Martin-Subero
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paola Fuentes-Claramonte
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Salgado-Pineda
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Madrid, Spain
| | - Josep Salavert
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Psychiatry Department, Hospital Sant Rafael, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antoni Arevalo
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Psychiatry Department, Hospital Sagrat Cor Martorell Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Clara Bosque
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Benito Menni Centre Assistencial en Salut Mental, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carmen Sarri
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Benito Menni Centre Assistencial en Salut Mental, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Amalia Guerrero-Pedraza
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Benito Menni Centre Assistencial en Salut Mental, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Antoni Capdevila
- Radiology Unit, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau (HSCSP), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER-BBN (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Salvador Sarró
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raymond Salvador
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Madrid, Spain
| | - Peter J. McKenna
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Madrid, Spain
| | - Edith Pomarol-Clotet
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Madrid, Spain
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Cali RJ, Nephew BC, Moore CM, Chumachenko S, Sala AC, Cintron B, Luciano C, King JA, Hooper SR, Giardiello FM, Cruz-Correa M. Altered Resting State Brain Networks and Cognition in Familial Adenomatous Polyposis. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2020. [PMID: 33173924 DOI: 10.1101/2020.11.02.20224477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutation of the APC gene presenting with numerous colorectal adenomatous polyps and a near 100% risk of colon cancer. Preliminary research findings from our group indicate that FAP patients experience significant deficits across many cognitive domains. In the current study, fMRI brain metrics in a FAP population and matched controls were used to further the mechanistic understanding of reported cognitive deficits. This research identified and characterized any possible differences in resting brain networks and associations between neural network changes and cognition from 34 participants (18 FAP patients, 16 healthy controls). Functional connectivity analysis was performed using FSL with independent component analysis (ICA) to identify functional networks. Significant differences between cases and controls were observed in 8 well-established resting state networks. With the addition of an aggregate cognitive measure as a covariate, these differences were virtually non-existent, indicating a strong correlation between cognition and brain activity at the network level. The data indicate robust and pervasive effects on functional neural network activity among FAP patients and these effects are likely involved in cognitive deficits associated with this disease.
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9
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Fuentes-Claramonte P, Martin-Subero M, Salgado-Pineda P, Santo-Angles A, Argila-Plaza I, Salavert J, Arévalo A, Bosque C, Sarri C, Guerrero-Pedraza A, Capdevila A, Sarró S, McKenna PJ, Pomarol-Clotet E, Salvador R. Brain imaging correlates of self- and other-reflection in schizophrenia. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2019; 25:102134. [PMID: 31877452 PMCID: PMC6931228 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2019.102134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Self- and other-reflection in schizophrenia were studied with fMRI. Patients failed to activate the right temporo-parietal junction in other-reflection. They also hyperactivated lateral prefrontal cortex for self and other-reflection. These findings might be linked to altered self/other processing in schizophrenia.
Background An alteration in self/other differentiation has been proposed as a basis for several symptoms in schizophrenia, including delusions of reference and social functioning deficits. Dysfunction of the right temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), a region linked with social cognition, has been proposed as the basis of this alteration. However, imaging studies of self- and other-processing in schizophrenia have shown, so far, inconsistent results. Methods Patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls underwent fMRI scanning while performing a task with three conditions: self-reflection, other-reflection and semantic processing. Results Both groups activated similar brain regions for self- and other-reflection compared to semantic processing, including the medial prefrontal cortex, the precuneus and the TPJ. Compared to healthy subjects, patients hyperactivated the left lateral frontal cortex during self- and other-reflection. In other-reflection, compared to self-reflection, patients failed to increase right TPJ activity. Conclusions Altered activity in the right TPJ supports a disturbance in self/other differentiation in schizophrenia, which could be linked with psychotic symptoms and affect social functioning in patients. Hyperactivity of the lateral frontal cortex for self- and other-reflection suggests the presence of greater cognitive demand to perform the task in the patient group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Fuentes-Claramonte
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain
| | - Marta Martin-Subero
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain; Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pilar Salgado-Pineda
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain
| | - Aniol Santo-Angles
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain
| | - Isabel Argila-Plaza
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain
| | - Josep Salavert
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Psychiatry Department, Hospital Sant Rafael, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antoni Arévalo
- Psychiatry Department, Hospital Sagrat Cor Martorell Barcelona, Spain
| | - Clara Bosque
- Benito Menni Centre Assistencial en Salut Mental, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carmen Sarri
- Benito Menni Centre Assistencial en Salut Mental, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Antoni Capdevila
- Radiology Unit, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau (HSCSP), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER-BBN (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina), Spain
| | - Salvador Sarró
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain
| | - Peter J McKenna
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain
| | - Edith Pomarol-Clotet
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain.
| | - Raymond Salvador
- FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Carrer Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 38, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental), Spain
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Default Mode Network, Meditation, and Age-Associated Brain Changes: What Can We Learn from the Impact of Mental Training on Well-Being as a Psychotherapeutic Approach? Neural Plast 2019; 2019:7067592. [PMID: 31065259 PMCID: PMC6466873 DOI: 10.1155/2019/7067592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is a physiological process accompanied by cognitive decline, principally in memory and executive functions. Alterations in the connectivity of the default mode network (DMN) have been found to participate in cognitive decline, as well as in several neurocognitive disorders. The DMN has antisynchronic activity with attentional networks (task-positive networks (TPN)), which are critical to executive function and memory. Findings pointing to the regulation of the DMN via activation of TPN suggest that it can be used as a strategy for neuroprotection. Meditation is a noninvasive and nonpharmacological technique proven to increase meta-awareness, a cognitive ability which involves the control of both networks. In this review, we discuss the possibility of facilitating healthy aging through the regulation of networks through meditation. We propose that by practicing specific types of meditation, cognitive decline could be slowed, promoting a healthy lifestyle, which may enhance the quality of life for the elderly.
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Structural and functional alterations in the brain during working memory in medication-naïve patients at clinical high-risk for psychosis. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196289. [PMID: 29742121 PMCID: PMC5942777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Several previous studies suggest that clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR) is associated with prefrontal functional abnormalities and more widespread reduced grey matter in prefrontal, temporal and parietal areas. We investigated neural correlates to CHR in medication-naïve patients. 41 CHR patients and 37 healthy controls were examined with 1.5 Tesla MRI, yielding functional scans while performing an N-back task and structural T1-weighted brain images. Functional and structural data underwent automated preprocessing steps in SPM and Freesurfer, correspondingly. The groups were compared employing mass-univariate strategy within the generalized linear modelling framework. CHR demonstrated reduced suppression of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) regions during n-back task. We also found that, consistent with previous findings, CHR subjects demonstrated thinning in prefrontal, cingulate, insular and inferior temporal areas, as well as reduced hippocampal volumes. The present findings add to the growing evidence of specific structural and functional abnormalities in the brain as potential neuroimaging markers of psychosis vulnerability.
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Zhang Z, Yan T, Wang Y, Zhang Q, Zhao W, Chen X, Zhai J, Chen M, Du B, Deng X, Ji F, Xiang Y, Wu H, Song J, Dong Q, Chen C, Li J. Polymorphism in schizophrenia risk gene MIR137 is associated with the posterior cingulate Cortex's activation and functional and structural connectivity in healthy controls. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2018; 19:160-166. [PMID: 30035013 PMCID: PMC6051762 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2018.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
MIR137 gene has been repeatedly reported as a schizophrenia risk gene in genome-wide association studies (GWAS). A polymorphism (rs1625579) at the MIR137 gene has been associated with both neural activation and behavioral performance during a working memory task. This study examined MIR137's associations with task-related (N-back working memory) fMRI, resting state fMRI, and diffusion tensor images (DTI) data in 177 healthy adults. We found less deactivation of the PCC in risk allele homozygotes (TT) as compared to the GT heterozygotes (cluster size = 630 voxels, cluster level PFWE < 0.001) during the N-back task, which replicated previous findings. Using the identified cluster within the PCC as the seed, we further found decreased functional connectivity between the PCC and the anterior cingulate cortex and its adjacent medial prefrontal cortex (ACC/MPFC) in risk allele homozygotes during both resting state (cluster size = 427 voxels, cluster level PFWE = 0.001) and the N-back task (cluster size = 73 voxels, cluster level PFWE = 0.05). Finally, an analysis of our DTI data showed decreased white matter integrity of the posterior cingulum in risk allele homozygotes (cluster size = 214 voxels, cluster level PFWE = 0.03). Taken together, rs1625579 seems to play an important role in both functional and structural connectivity between the PCC and the ACC/MPFC, which may serve as the brain mechanisms for the link between rs1625579 and schizophrenia. This study replicated the association between the risk allele of rs1625579 and altered activations at the PCC. This study found decreased functional connectivity between the PCC and the ACC/MPFC in the risk allele homozygotes. This study found decreased FA value in the posterior cingulum in the risk allele homozygotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhifang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China
| | - Tongjun Yan
- The PLA 102nd Hospital and Mental Health Center of Military, Changzhou 213003, PR China
| | - Yanyan Wang
- The PLA 102nd Hospital and Mental Health Center of Military, Changzhou 213003, PR China
| | - Qiumei Zhang
- School of Mental Health, Jining Medical University, 45# Jianshe South Road, Jining 272013, Shandong Province, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China
| | - Wan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China
| | - Xiongying Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China
| | - Jinguo Zhai
- School of Mental Health, Jining Medical University, 45# Jianshe South Road, Jining 272013, Shandong Province, PR China
| | - Min Chen
- School of Mental Health, Jining Medical University, 45# Jianshe South Road, Jining 272013, Shandong Province, PR China
| | - Boqi Du
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China
| | - Xiaoxiang Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China
| | - Feng Ji
- School of Mental Health, Jining Medical University, 45# Jianshe South Road, Jining 272013, Shandong Province, PR China
| | - Yutao Xiang
- Beijing Anding Hospital, Beijing 100088, PR China; Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - Hongjie Wu
- Shengli Hospital of Shengli Petroleum Administration Bureau, Dongying 257022, Shandong Province, PR China
| | - Jie Song
- Shengli Hospital of Shengli Petroleum Administration Bureau, Dongying 257022, Shandong Province, PR China
| | - Qi Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China
| | - Chuansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Jun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, PR China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, PR China.
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Zhou Y, Zeidman P, Wu S, Razi A, Chen C, Yang L, Zou J, Wang G, Wang H, Friston KJ. Altered intrinsic and extrinsic connectivity in schizophrenia. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2017; 17:704-716. [PMID: 29264112 PMCID: PMC5726753 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a disorder characterized by functional dysconnectivity among distributed brain regions. However, it is unclear how causal influences among large-scale brain networks are disrupted in schizophrenia. In this study, we used dynamic causal modeling (DCM) to assess the hypothesis that there is aberrant directed (effective) connectivity within and between three key large-scale brain networks (the dorsal attention network, the salience network and the default mode network) in schizophrenia during a working memory task. Functional MRI data during an n-back task from 40 patients with schizophrenia and 62 healthy controls were analyzed. Using hierarchical modeling of between-subject effects in DCM with Parametric Empirical Bayes, we found that intrinsic (within-region) and extrinsic (between-region) effective connectivity involving prefrontal regions were abnormal in schizophrenia. Specifically, in patients (i) inhibitory self-connections in prefrontal regions of the dorsal attention network were decreased across task conditions; (ii) extrinsic connectivity between regions of the default mode network was increased; specifically, from posterior cingulate cortex to the medial prefrontal cortex; (iii) between-network extrinsic connections involving the prefrontal cortex were altered; (iv) connections within networks and between networks were correlated with the severity of clinical symptoms and impaired cognition beyond working memory. In short, this study revealed the predominance of reduced synaptic efficacy of prefrontal efferents and afferents in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. A first use of hierarchical modeling of effective connectivity to characterize large-scale networks in schizophrenia. Intrinsic and extrinsic effective connectivity involving prefrontal regions were abnormal in schizophrenia. Diagnostic connections could predict the severity of clinical symptoms and cognition in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Beijing 100101, China; Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research Center, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101,China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; The Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - Peter Zeidman
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Shihao Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Adeel Razi
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK; Department of Electronic Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Cheng Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Liuqing Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Beijing 100101, China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jilin Zou
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Gaohua Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Huiling Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China; Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, Wuhan 430071, China.
| | - Karl J Friston
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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Hahn B, Harvey AN, Gold JM, Ross TJ, Stein EA. Load-dependent hyperdeactivation of the default mode network in people with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2017; 185:190-196. [PMID: 28073606 PMCID: PMC6104387 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is associated with impairment in a range of cognitive functions. Neuroimaging studies have reported lower, but also higher, task-induced activation accompanying impaired performance. Differences in task-load and the ability of people with schizophrenia (PSZ) to stay engaged in the cognitive operations probed appear to underlie such discrepancies. Similarly, task-induced deactivation of the default mode network (DMN) was weaker in PSZ relative to healthy control subjects (HCS) in most studies, but some reported greater deactivation. An inability to stay engaged in the cognitive operations could account for these discrepancies, too, as it would lead to more time off-task and consequently less deactivation of DMN functions. The present study employed a change detection paradigm with small to moderate set sizes (SSs) of 1, 2, and 4 items. Task training prior to fMRI scanning abolished the group difference in no-response trials. Task-positive regions of interest (ROIs) displayed greater activation with increasing SS in both groups. PSZ showed greater activation relative to HCS at SSs 1 and 2. DMN ROIs displayed greater deactivation with increasing SS in PSZ, but not in HCS, and PSZ tended to hyperdeactivate DMN regions at SS 4. No hypodeactivation was observed in PSZ. In conclusion, when minimizing differences in task-engagement, PSZ tend to over-recruit task-positive regions during low-load operations, and hyperdeactivate DMN functions at higher load, perhaps reflecting heightened non-specific vigilance or effort when dealing with cognitive challenges. This speaks against an inability to down-regulate task-independent thought processes as a primary mechanism underlying cognitive impairment in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta Hahn
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, P.O. Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
| | - Alexander N Harvey
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, P.O. Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
| | - James M Gold
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, P.O. Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
| | - Thomas J Ross
- National Institute on Drug Abuse - Intramural Research Program, Neuroimaging Research Branch, 251 Bayview Blvd, Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Elliot A Stein
- National Institute on Drug Abuse - Intramural Research Program, Neuroimaging Research Branch, 251 Bayview Blvd, Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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Mowinckel AM, Alnæs D, Pedersen ML, Ziegler S, Fredriksen M, Kaufmann T, Sonuga-Barke E, Endestad T, Westlye LT, Biele G. Increased default-mode variability is related to reduced task-performance and is evident in adults with ADHD. Neuroimage Clin 2017; 16:369-382. [PMID: 28861338 PMCID: PMC5568884 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Insufficient suppression and connectivity of the default mode network (DMN) is a potential mediator of cognitive dysfunctions across various disorders, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, it remains unclear if alterations in sustained DMN suppression, variability and connectivity during prolonged cognitive engagement are implicated in adult ADHD pathophysiology, and to which degree methylphenidate (MPH) remediates any DMN abnormalities. This randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, cross-over clinical trial of MPH (clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01831622) explored large-scale brain network dynamics in 20 adults with ADHD on and off MPH, compared to 27 healthy controls, while performing a reward based decision-making task. DMN task-related activation, variability, and connectivity were estimated and compared between groups and conditions using independent component analysis, dual regression, and Bayesian linear mixed models. The results show that the DMN exhibited more variable activation patterns in unmedicated patients compared to healthy controls. Group differences in functional connectivity both between and within functional networks were evident. Further, functional connectivity between and within attention and DMN networks was sensitive both to task performance and case-control status. MPH altered within-network connectivity of the DMN and visual networks, but not between-network connectivity or temporal variability. This study thus provides novel fMRI evidence of reduced sustained DMN suppression in adults with ADHD during value-based decision-making, a pattern that was not alleviated by MPH. We infer from multiple analytical approaches further support to the default mode interference hypothesis, in that higher DMN activation variability is evident in adult ADHD and associated with lower task performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dag Alnæs
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research (NORMENT), Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Mads L. Pedersen
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway
- Intervention Center, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, 0372 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sigurd Ziegler
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. box 1171, Blindern, 0318 Oslo, Norway
| | - Mats Fredriksen
- Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Vestfold Hospital Trust, 3103 Tønsberg, Norway
| | - Tobias Kaufmann
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research (NORMENT), Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Edmund Sonuga-Barke
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience Kings College London, United Kingdom
| | - Tor Endestad
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lars T. Westlye
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research (NORMENT), Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Guido Biele
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division of Mental Health, 0403 Oslo, Norway
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