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Liu H, Wang M, Ji F, Jiang Y, Yang M. Mini review of photoacoustic clinical imaging: a noninvasive tool for disease diagnosis and treatment evaluation. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2024; 29:S11522. [PMID: 38230369 PMCID: PMC10790789 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.29.s1.s11522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Significance Photoacoustic (PA) imaging is an imaging modality that integrates anatomical, functional, metabolic, and histologic insights. It has been a hot topic of medical research and draws extensive attention. Aim This review aims to explore the applications of PA clinical imaging in human diseases, highlighting recent advancements. Approach A systemic survey of the literature concerning the clinical utility of PA imaging was conducted, with a particular focus on its application in tumors, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory conditions, and endocrine disorders. Results PA imaging is emerging as a valuable tool for human disease investigation. Information provided by PA imaging can be used for diagnosis, grading, and prognosis in multiple types of tumors including breast tumors, ovarian neoplasms, thyroid nodules, and cutaneous malignancies. PA imaging facilitates the monitoring of disease activity in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic sclerosis, arteritis, and inflammatory bowel disease by capturing dynamic functional alterations. Furthermore, its unique capability of visualizing vascular structure and oxygenation levels aids in assessing diabetes mellitus comorbidities and thyroid function. Conclusions Despite extant challenges, PA imaging offers a promising noninvasive tool for precision disease diagnosis, long-term evaluation, and prognosis anticipation, making it a potentially significant imaging modality for clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huazhen Liu
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Department of Ultrasound, Beijing, China
| | - Ming Wang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Department of Ultrasound, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Ji
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Department of Ultrasound, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxin Jiang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Department of Ultrasound, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Yang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Department of Ultrasound, Beijing, China
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2
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Sridharan B, Lim HG. Advances in photoacoustic imaging aided by nano contrast agents: special focus on role of lymphatic system imaging for cancer theranostics. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:437. [PMID: 37986071 PMCID: PMC10662568 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-02192-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is a successful clinical imaging platform for management of cancer and other health conditions that has seen significant progress in the past decade. However, clinical translation of PAI based methods are still under scrutiny as the imaging quality and clinical information derived from PA images are not on par with other imaging methods. Hence, to improve PAI, exogenous contrast agents, in the form of nanomaterials, are being used to achieve better image with less side effects, lower accumulation, and improved target specificity. Nanomedicine has become inevitable in cancer management, as it contributes at every stage from diagnosis to therapy, surgery, and even in the postoperative care and surveillance for recurrence. Nanocontrast agents for PAI have been developed and are being explored for early and improved cancer diagnosis. The systemic stability and target specificity of the nanomaterials to render its theranostic property depends on various influencing factors such as the administration route and physico-chemical responsiveness. The recent focus in PAI is on targeting the lymphatic system and nodes for cancer diagnosis, as they play a vital role in cancer progression and metastasis. This review aims to discuss the clinical advancements of PAI using nanoparticles as exogenous contrast agents for cancer theranostics with emphasis on PAI of lymphatic system for diagnosis, cancer progression, metastasis, PAI guided tumor resection, and finally PAI guided drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Badrinathan Sridharan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan, 48513, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Gyun Lim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan, 48513, Republic of Korea.
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Poplack SP, Park EY, Ferrara KW. Optical Breast Imaging: A Review of Physical Principles, Technologies, and Clinical Applications. JOURNAL OF BREAST IMAGING 2023; 5:520-537. [PMID: 37981994 PMCID: PMC10655724 DOI: 10.1093/jbi/wbad057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Optical imaging involves the propagation of light through tissue. Current optical breast imaging technologies, including diffuse optical spectroscopy, diffuse optical tomography, and photoacoustic imaging, capitalize on the selective absorption of light in the near-infrared spectrum by deoxygenated and oxygenated hemoglobin. They provide information on the morphological and functional characteristics of different tissues based on their varied interactions with light, including physiologic information on lesion vascular content and anatomic information on tissue vascularity. Fluorescent contrast agents, such as indocyanine green, are used to visualize specific tissues, molecules, or proteins depending on how and where the agent accumulates. In this review, we describe the physical principles, spectrum of technologies, and clinical applications of the most common optical systems currently being used or developed for breast imaging. Most notably, US co-registered photoacoustic imaging and US-guided diffuse optical tomography have demonstrated efficacy in differentiating benign from malignant breast masses, thereby improving the specificity of diagnostic imaging. Diffuse optical tomography and diffuse optical spectroscopy have shown promise in assessing treatment response to preoperative systemic therapy, and photoacoustic imaging and diffuse optical tomography may help predict tumor phenotype. Lastly, fluorescent imaging using indocyanine green dye performs comparably to radioisotope mapping of sentinel lymph nodes and appears to improve the outcomes of autologous tissue flap breast reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P. Poplack
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Eun-Yeong Park
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Katherine W. Ferrara
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Palo Alto, CA, USA
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Noltes ME, Bader M, Metman MJH, Vonk J, Steinkamp PJ, Kukačka J, Westerlaan HE, Dierckx RAJO, van Hemel BM, Brouwers AH, van Dam GM, Jüstel D, Ntziachristos V, Kruijff S. Towards in vivo characterization of thyroid nodules suspicious for malignancy using multispectral optoacoustic tomography. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2023; 50:2736-2750. [PMID: 37039901 PMCID: PMC10317911 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-023-06189-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Patient-tailored management of thyroid nodules requires improved risk of malignancy stratification by accurate preoperative nodule assessment, aiming to personalize decisions concerning diagnostics and treatment. Here, we perform an exploratory pilot study to identify possible patterns on multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) for thyroid malignancy stratification. For the first time, we directly correlate MSOT images with histopathology data on a detailed level. METHODS We use recently enhanced data processing and image reconstruction methods for MSOT to provide next-level image quality by means of improved spatial resolution and spectral contrast. We examine optoacoustic features in thyroid nodules associated with vascular patterns and correlate these directly with reference histopathology. RESULTS Our methods show the ability to resolve blood vessels with diameters of 250 μm at depths of up to 2 cm. The vessel diameters derived on MSOT showed an excellent correlation (R2-score of 0.9426) with the vessel diameters on histopathology. Subsequently, we identify features of malignancy observable in MSOT, such as intranodular microvascularity and extrathyroidal extension verified by histopathology. Despite these promising features in selected patients, we could not determine statistically relevant differences between benign and malignant thyroid nodules based on mean oxygen saturation in thyroid nodules. Thus, we illustrate general imaging artifacts of the whole field of optoacoustic imaging that reduce image fidelity and distort spectral contrast, which impedes quantification of chromophore presence based on mean concentrations. CONCLUSION We recommend examining optoacoustic features in addition to chromophore quantification to rank malignancy risk. We present optoacoustic images of thyroid nodules with the highest spatial resolution and spectral contrast to date, directly correlated to histopathology, pushing the clinical translation of MSOT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milou E Noltes
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Maximilian Bader
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Madelon J H Metman
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jasper Vonk
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Pieter J Steinkamp
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jan Kukačka
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Henriette E Westerlaan
- Department of Radiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Rudi A J O Dierckx
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bettien M van Hemel
- Department of Pathology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Adrienne H Brouwers
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Gooitzen M van Dam
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
- AxelaRx/TRACER Europe BV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Dominik Jüstel
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Vasilis Ntziachristos
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- Munich Institute of Robotics and Machine Intelligence (MIRMI), Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Schelto Kruijff
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.
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5
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Jüstel D, Irl H, Hinterwimmer F, Dehner C, Simson W, Navab N, Schneider G, Ntziachristos V. Spotlight on Nerves: Portable Multispectral Optoacoustic Imaging of Peripheral Nerve Vascularization and Morphology. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023:e2301322. [PMID: 37092572 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202301322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Various morphological and functional parameters of peripheral nerves and their vascular supply are indicative of pathological changes due to injury or disease. Based on recent improvements in optoacoustic image quality, the ability of multispectral optoacoustic tomography, to investigate the vascular environment and morphology of peripheral nerves is explored in vivo in a pilot study on healthy volunteers in tandem with ultrasound imaging (OPUS). The unique ability of optoacoustic imaging to visualize the vasa nervorum by observing intraneural vessels in healthy nerves is showcased in vivo for the first time. In addition, it is demonstrated that the label-free spectral optoacoustic contrast of the perfused connective tissue of peripheral nerves can be linked to the endogenous contrast of hemoglobin and collagen. Metrics are introduced to analyze the composition of tissue based on its optoacoustic contrast and show that the high-resolution spectral contrast reveals specific differences between nervous tissue and reference tissue in the nerve's surrounding. How this showcased extraction of peripheral nerve characteristics using multispectral optoacoustic and ultrasound imaging could offer new insights into the pathophysiology of nerve damage and neuropathies, for example, in the context of diabetes is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Jüstel
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764, Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Hedwig Irl
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts Der Isar, Technical University of Munich, D-81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Hinterwimmer
- Department of Orthopaedics and Sport Orthopaedics, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts Der Isar, Technical University of Munich, D-81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Christoph Dehner
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764, Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Walter Simson
- Chair for Computer Aided Medical Procedures and Augmented Reality, Technical University of Munich, D-80333, Munich, Germany
| | - Nassir Navab
- Chair for Computer Aided Medical Procedures and Augmented Reality, Technical University of Munich, D-80333, Munich, Germany
- Munich Institute of Robotics and Machine Intelligence, Technical University of Munich, D-80992, Munich, Germany
| | - Gerhard Schneider
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts Der Isar, Technical University of Munich, D-81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Vasilis Ntziachristos
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764, Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675, Munich, Germany
- Munich Institute of Robotics and Machine Intelligence, Technical University of Munich, D-80992, Munich, Germany
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6
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Choi W, Park B, Choi S, Oh D, Kim J, Kim C. Recent Advances in Contrast-Enhanced Photoacoustic Imaging: Overcoming the Physical and Practical Challenges. Chem Rev 2023. [PMID: 36642892 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
For decades now, photoacoustic imaging (PAI) has been investigated to realize its potential as a niche biomedical imaging modality. Despite its highly desirable optical contrast and ultrasonic spatiotemporal resolution, PAI is challenged by such physical limitations as a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), diminished image contrast due to strong optical attenuation, and a lower-bound on spatial resolution in deep tissue. In addition, contrast-enhanced PAI has faced practical limitations such as insufficient cell-specific targeting due to low delivery efficiency and difficulties in developing clinically translatable agents. Identifying these limitations is essential to the continuing expansion of the field, and substantial advances in developing contrast-enhancing agents, complemented by high-performance image acquisition systems, have synergistically dealt with the challenges of conventional PAI. This review covers the past four years of research on pushing the physical and practical challenges of PAI in terms of SNR/contrast, spatial resolution, targeted delivery, and clinical application. Promising strategies for dealing with each challenge are reviewed in detail, and future research directions for next generation contrast-enhanced PAI are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonseok Choi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Byullee Park
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongwook Choi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Donghyeon Oh
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongbeom Kim
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Chulhong Kim
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
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7
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Zhang Y, Wang L. Adaptive dual-speed ultrasound and photoacoustic computed tomography. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2022; 27:100380. [PMID: 35722271 PMCID: PMC9198371 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2022.100380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Full-ring dual-modal ultrasound and photoacoustic computed tomography has unique advantages of nearly isotropic spatial resolution, complementary contrast, deep penetration, and full-view detection. However, the imaging quality may be deteriorated by the inaccurate sound speed estimation. Automatic determining and compensation for sound speed has been a long-standing problem in image reconstruction. Here, we present new adaptive dual-speed ultrasound and photoacoustic computed tomography (ADS-USPACT) to address this challenge. The system features full-view coverage (360°), high-speed dual-modal imaging (10-Hz), automated dual sound speed correction, and synergistic high imaging quality. To correct the sound speed, we develop a two-compartment method that can automatically segment the sample boundary and search for the optimal sound speed based on the rich ultrasonic pulse-echo signals. The method does not require the operator's intervention. We validate this technique in numerical simulation, phantom study, and in vivo experiments. The ADS-USPACT represents significant progress in dual-modal imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yachao Zhang
- City University of Hong Kong, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lidai Wang
- City University of Hong Kong, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
- City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
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8
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Vonk J, Kukačka J, Steinkamp P, de Wit J, Voskuil F, Hooghiemstra W, Bader M, Jüstel D, Ntziachristos V, van Dam G, Witjes M. Multispectral optoacoustic tomography for in vivo detection of lymph node metastases in oral cancer patients using an EGFR-targeted contrast agent and intrinsic tissue contrast: A proof-of-concept study. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2022; 26:100362. [PMID: 35541024 PMCID: PMC9079001 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2022.100362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Oral cancer patients undergo diagnostic surgeries to detect occult lymph node metastases missed by preoperative structural imaging techniques. Reducing these invasive procedures that are associated with considerable morbidity, requires better preoperative detection. Multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) is a rapidly evolving imaging technique that may improve preoperative detection of (early-stage) lymph node metastases, enabling the identification of molecular changes that often precede structural changes in tumorigenesis. Here, we characterize the optoacoustic properties of cetuximab-800CW, a tumor-specific fluorescent tracer showing several photophysical properties that benefit optoacoustic signal generation. In this first clinical proof-of-concept study, we explore its use as optoacoustic to differentiate between malignant and benign lymph nodes. We characterize the appearance of malignant lymph nodes and show differences in the distribution of intrinsic chromophores compared to benign lymph nodes. In addition, we suggest several approaches to improve the efficiency of follow-up studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Vonk
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - J. Kukačka
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - P.J. Steinkamp
- Department of Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - J.G. de Wit
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - F.J. Voskuil
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - W.T.R. Hooghiemstra
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - M. Bader
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - D. Jüstel
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - V. Ntziachristos
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Germany
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - G.M. van Dam
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
- AxelaRx / TRACER B.V., Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - M.J.H. Witjes
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands
- Correspondence to: Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands.
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