Seeking the origins of time perspectives – Intelligence, temperament, or family environment? A one-year longitudinal study

Time matters for mental health: a systematic review of quantitative studies on time perspective in psychiatric populations

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The ability to perform mental time travels and to develop representations of the past, the present, and the future is one of the distinctive capacities of the human mind. Despite its pronounced consequences for motivation, cognition, affect, and subjective well being, time perspective (TP) has been outside mainstream psychiatry and clinical psychology. We highlight the role of psychological-temporal phenomena in various disorders and summarize the current research on TP and psychopathology.

RECENT FINDINGS

Our review ultimately comprised 21 articles, including 18 unique datasets. It revealed that persons with different psychiatric diagnoses (attention defict hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), alcohol dependence, anxiety disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, personality disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia) display different temporal profiles than control groups. We also found marked associations between temporal features and psychiatric symptom severity. The effects of specific TPs vary across different psychiatric diagnoses and to some extent between various age groups, with a consistent, widespread, and nonspecific effect of past-negative and less balanced, inflexible TP profile.

SUMMARY

Based on the review, TP biases are crucial factors in symptom development, while adaptive temporal profiles can serve as protective features against mental disorders. Understanding cognitive-temporal processes can enhance comprehension of psychopathological conditions and facilitate the development of temporality-focused clinical interventions.

Time perspective profile and self-reported health on the EQ-5D

OBJECTIVES

Time perspective (TP) is a psychological construct that is associated with several health-related behaviours, including healthy eating, smoking and adherence to medications. In this study, we aimed to examine the associations of TP profile with self-reported health on the EQ-5D-5L and to detect which domains display response heterogeneity (cut-point shift) for TP.

METHODS

We conducted a secondary analysis of EQ-5D-5L data from a representative general population sample in Hungary (n = 996). The 17-item Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory was used to measure individuals' TP on five subscales: past-negative, past-positive, present-fatalist, present-hedonist and future. The associations between TP subscales and EQ-5D-5L domain scores, EQ VAS and EQ-5D-5L index values were analysed by using partial proportional odds models and multivariate linear regressions.

RESULTS

Respondents that scored higher on the past-negative and present-fatalist and lower on the present-hedonist and future subscales were more likely to report more health problems in at least one EQ-5D-5L domain (p < 0.05). Adjusting for socio-economic and health status, three EQ-5D-5L domains exhibited significant associations with various TP subscales (usual activities: present-fatalist and future, pain/discomfort: past-negative and future, anxiety/depression: past-negative, present-fatalist, present-hedonist and future). The anxiety/depression domain showed evidence of cut-point shift.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified response heterogeneity stemming from psychological characteristics in self-reported health on the EQ-5D-5L. TP seems to play a double role in self-reported health, firstly as affecting underlying health and secondly as a factor influencing one's response behavior. These findings increase our understanding of the non-health-related factors that affect self-reported health on standardized health status measures.

Time Balance and Family Functioning: The Role of Time Perspective in the Cohesion and Adaptability of Families with Adolescents

Family functioning, understood as cohesion and adaptability, is critical in families with adolescent children, given the changes that this stage implies at the family level. Time perspective is one variable that can facilitate better family functioning through the way people give meaning to the process they live. In this study, we examined the relationship between family functioning and the time perspective of adolescent children's parents. The FACES IV and ZTPI were administered to 276 parents of adolescents. Regression analyses indicated that the past positive, past negative, and future scores predicted family cohesion and adaptability, explaining at least 20% of the variance. Balanced families, with greater cohesion and adaptability, presented a higher level of past positive and future-oriented temporal perspectives, compared to unbalanced families, which presented a greater orientation to the past negative and deviated from the balanced temporal profile. The importance of considering the inter-relationship between family functioning and time perspective was discussed, considering its impact on the health and well-being of families with adolescents.

Time perspective affects daily time use and daily functioning in individuals with Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: Results from the multicentric DiAPAson study

Time perspective (TP) influences various aspects of human life. We aimed to explore the associations between TP, daily time use, and levels of functioning among 620 patients (313 residential patients and 307 outpatients) with a diagnosis of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders (SSD) recruited from 37 different centres in Italy. The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and the Specific Levels of Functioning (SLOF) were used to assess psychiatric symptoms severity and levels of functioning. Daily time use was assessed using an ad hoc paper and pencil Time Use Survey. The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) was used to assess TP. Deviation from Balanced Time Perspective (DBTP-r) was used as an indicator of temporal imbalance. Results showed that the amount of time spent on non-productive activities (NPA) was positively predicted by DBTP-r (Exp(β): 1.36; p .003), and negatively predicted by the Past-Positive (Exp(β): 0.80; p .022), Present-Hedonistic (Exp(β): 0.77; p .008), and Future (Exp(β): 0.78; p .012) subscales. DBTP-r significantly negatively predicted SLOF outcomes (p .002), and daily time use, in particular the amount of time spent in NPA and Productive Activities (PA), mediated their association. Results suggested that rehabilitative programs for individuals with SSD should consider fostering a balanced time perspective to reduce inactivity, increase physical activity, and promote healthy daily functioning and autonomy.

Time Goes Back-Time Perspective in Polish Men with Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder and Risky Sexual Behavior

Many relationships between time perspective and a propensity to engage in risky behaviors or developing addictions have been demonstrated. The aim of our study was to determine the differences in intensity of individual time perspectives in people with compulsive sexual behavior disorder (CSBD) and risky sexual behavior (RSB). The analysis includes 425 men: 98 CSBD (age M = 37.99 years), 63 RSB (age M = 35.70 years), 264 without CSBD and RSB features constituting the control group (age M = 35.08 years). We used the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, the Sexual Addiction Screening Test-Revised, the Risky Sexual Behavior Scale and a self-constructed survey. The comparative analysis showed a higher intensity of past-negative (p = 0.040), a lower of past-positive (p < 0.001) and a present-fatalistic (p = 0.040) outlook in the CSBD group compared to the control group. Compared to the participants with RSB, the CSBD group was characterized by a higher intensity of past-negative (p = 0.010), a lower of past-positive (p = 0.004) and a present-hedonistic perspective (p = 0.014). The RSB group also achieved higher results from the present-hedonistic perspective (p = 0.046) compared to the control group. The CSBD patients indicate a stronger tendency to focus on negative past compared to non-CSBD men, both taking and not taking RSB. The time perspective profiles of RSB men are similar to those who do not engage in RSB. The distinguishing feature of men with RSB without CSBD is a greater ability to enjoy current experiences.

The role of balanced time perspective mediating the relationship between mindfulness as a trait and life satisfaction in Catalan University students

The objective of the present study was to replicate previous studies by examining the potential connections between mindfulness as a trait, life satisfaction and time perspectives (TP) and to analyze if balanced time perspective (BTP) could act as a possible mediator between mindfulness and life satisfaction in students from the University of Girona (Catalonia, Spain). Data was collected from 341 Catalan university students aged 18-52 (77.1% women; mean age = 23.62) who completed Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), the Mindfulness Awareness Scale (MAAS) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) to assess their Temporal Perspective, Mindfulness as a trait and Life Satisfaction respectively. Balanced time perspective (BTP) was calculated using the deviation index of BTP (DBTP). Results showed significant relationships between the various temporal dimensions, life satisfaction, and mindfulness as a trait, being the most significant associations with balanced temporal perspective. On the other hand, results also suggested that BTP may act as a mediator between mindfulness as a psychological trait and life satisfaction, confirming previous studies conducted in different countries. In conclusion, findings could highlight the importance of regulating one's attention in order to balance time perspectives, which in turn would translate into improved life satisfaction.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-03795-4.

Effects of fun-seeking and external locus of control on smoking behaviour: a cross-sectional analysis on a cohort of working men in Singapore

OBJECTIVES

We examined the combined effects of behavioural inhibition and behavioural activation, on one hand, and locus of control, on the other hand, on different categories of smoking behaviour (non-smoking, ex-smoking, occasional smoking, daily smoking).

DESIGN

This study adopted a cross-sectional design. Participants completed questionnaires regarding demographics, smoking patterns, behavioural inhibition/behavioural activation systems and locus of control.

SETTING

The study was conducted across four companies from the transportation, cooling plant and education sectors in Singapore.

PARTICIPANTS

Three hundred sixty-nine male working adults were included in the final sample.

RESULTS

Corroborating previous research, a logistic regression model examining behavioural inhibition/behavioural activation systems revealed that the fun-seeking aspect of behavioural activation was a unique predictor in distinguishing non-smokers from daily smokers (OR=1.24, p=0.012). By contrast, in a separate model examining locus of control, external locus of control was found to be a unique predictor in distinguishing non-smokers from daily smokers (OR=1.13, p<0.001). In addition, a third model combining both behavioural inhibition/behavioural activation systems and locus of control found that only external locus of control remained a significant predictor (OR=1.12, p<0.001). Further analyses revealed a mediating effect of external locus of control on the relationship between fun-seeking and smoking behaviour. That is, the increase in the odds of daily smoking due to fun-seeking was explained by external locus of control (direct pathway OR=1.20, p=0.058; indirect pathway OR=1.04, p<0.050).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, fun-seeking through its influence on external locus of control indirectly affects daily smoking behaviour, suggesting a more complex relationship than shown in previous research.

Role of time perspectives and self-control on well-being and ill-being during the COVID-19 pandemic: A multiple mediation model

BACKGROUND

A growing body of evidence indicates that the outbreak of COVID-19 has had a significant influence on individuals' cognition, emotion, and psychological health. This study aims to explore the effect of the association between time perspectives and self-control on the well-being and ill-being among college students in China during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

We conducted an online survey involving 1,924 participants in mainland China during the outbreak of COVID-19. A series of self-rating questionnaires measuring the perceived impact of COVID-19, time perspectives, self-control, as well as the statuses of well-being and ill-being were administered. Multiple indirect effects of time perspectives and self-control on well-being and ill-being were analysed through structural equation modelling.

RESULTS

The present-hedonistic time perspective (an orientation on immediate impulses of pleasure) meditated the effects of perceived impacts on both well-being and ill-being, and the future time perspective (considering the outcomes of actions and decisions) mediated the effects on well-being. Moreover, the mediating effects were further mediated by self-control. Specifically, the impact of the future time perspective on ill-being was fully mediated by self-control (β = 0.01, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Based on the results, it is evident that the present-hedonistic time perspective, the future time perspective, and self-control are related to higher levels of well-being and lower levels of ill-being, thereby providing further insight into the theoretical framework of time perspectives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, our findings provide practical implications for psychological interventions during the on-going COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the effects of time perspectives and self-control on the well-being and ill-being of different individuals.

A Time to Sleep Well and Be Contented: Time Perspective, Sleep Quality, and Life Satisfaction

A major aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between time perspective, i.e., habitual ways of relating to the past, present, and future, and sleep quality. A second aim was to test a model by which the expected negative relationship between deviation from a balanced time perspective (DBTP), a measure taking temporal biases across all three time frames into account, and life satisfaction was mediated by poor sleep quality. To these ends, a sample of young adults (N = 386) completed a version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (S-ZTPI), Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). A measure of chronotype was in addition included for control purposes. Bivariate analyses revealed that the S-ZTPI subscales Past Negative, Future Negative and Present Fatalistic were associated with poorer sleep quality (higher PSQI scores), with significant associations in the opposite direction for Past Positive and Future Positive. However, DBTP was the strongest predictor of (poorer) sleep quality, suggesting that time perspective biases have an additive effect on sleep quality. Regression analyses with PSQI as the dependent variable and all six ZTPI subscales as the predictors indicated that time perspective accounted for about 20% of the variance in sleep quality (17% beyond chronotype), with Past Negative, Past Positive, and Future Negative as the unique predictors. The results additionally confirmed a strong relationship between DBTP and life satisfaction. Finally, data were consistent with the hypothesis that the association of DBTP and life satisfaction is mediated, in part, by sleep quality. Taken together, the results confirmed a substantial link between time perspective sleep-related problems, factors that may have a negative impact on life satisfaction.