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Ungogo MA, de Koning HP. Drug resistance in animal trypanosomiases: Epidemiology, mechanisms and control strategies. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2024; 25:100533. [PMID: 38555795 PMCID: PMC10990905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2024.100533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is a complex of veterinary diseases known under various names such as nagana, surra, dourine and mal de caderas, depending on the country, the infecting trypanosome species and the host. AT is caused by parasites of the genus Trypanosoma, and the main species infecting domesticated animals are T. brucei brucei, T. b. rhodesiense, T. congolense, T. simiae, T. vivax, T. evansi and T. equiperdum. AT transmission, again depending on species, is through tsetse flies or common Stomoxys and tabanid flies or through copulation. Therefore, the geographical spread of all forms of AT together is not restricted to the habitat of a single vector like the tsetse fly and currently includes almost all of Africa, and most of South America and Asia. The disease is a threat to millions of companion and farm animals in these regions, creating a financial burden in the billions of dollars to developing economies as well as serious impacts on livestock rearing and food production. Despite the scale of these impacts, control of AT is neglected and under-resourced, with diagnosis and treatments being woefully inadequate and not improving for decades. As a result, neither the incidence of the disease, nor the effectiveness of treatment is documented in most endemic countries, although it is clear that there are serious issues of resistance to the few old drugs that are available. In this review we particularly look at the drugs, their application to the various forms of AT, and their mechanisms of action and resistance. We also discuss the spread of veterinary trypanocide resistance and its drivers, and highlight current and future strategies to combat it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A Ungogo
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P de Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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Javanshir A, Tavassoli M, Esmaeilnejad B. Morphological, serological, molecular detection, and phylogenetic analysis of Trypanosoma evansi in horses of different regions in Iran. Parasitol Res 2023:10.1007/s00436-023-07888-2. [PMID: 37272975 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-07888-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of "surra" is enzootic in Iran. The current study aimed to detect T. evansi in horses from different regions of Iran using morphological, serological, and molecular methods. In 2021, 400 blood samples were collected from horses in eight regions. Eighty horses showed clinical signs such as cachexia (n = 64), fever (n = 36), foot edema (n = 40), and abdominal edema (n = 32), and 320 horses appeared healthy. All samples from the studied regions were evaluated for the presence of trypanosomes using direct analysis of blood smears, mercuric chloride, and PCR-based tests. In total, 12% (95% CI: ± 3.1%), 21% (95% CI: ± 3.9%), and 21% (84) of animals were positive for Trypanosoma in microscopic, serologic, and molecular analyses, respectively. All animals positive for SSU rDNA PCR were from Qom, Semnan, and Golestan regions. Further molecular analyses on 84 PCR-positive horses revealed that 29 horses scored positive in PCR using primers of trypanozoon species and 5 scored positive in PCR using primers of Trypanosoma evansi type A. All samples (n = 5) were from Qom region. The 205-bp fragments of T. evansi RoTat 1.2VSG (accession numbers: ON017789-93) analyzed and compared to other isolates sequence from GenBank BLAST search. It has close similarities with isolates from Pakistan, Egypt, Malaysia, Kenya, and India. Data herein demonstrated that horses from Iran were at high risk of T. evansi infection. Comprehensive control programs, such as those based on the application of repellants and traps, and also, compliance with quarantine standards are recommended for minimizing the risk of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Javanshir
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
| | - Mousa Tavassoli
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran.
| | - Bijan Esmaeilnejad
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
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3
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Boulangé A, Lejon V, Berthier D, Thévenon S, Gimonneau G, Desquesnes M, Abah S, Agboho P, Chilongo K, Gebre T, Fall AG, Kaba D, Magez S, Masiga D, Matovu E, Moukhtar A, Neves L, Olet PA, Pagabeleguem S, Shereni W, Sorli B, Taioe MO, Tejedor Junco MT, Yagi R, Solano P, Cecchi G. The COMBAT project: controlling and progressively minimizing the burden of vector-borne animal trypanosomosis in Africa. OPEN RESEARCH EUROPE 2022; 2:67. [PMID: 37645305 PMCID: PMC10445831 DOI: 10.12688/openreseurope.14759.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Vector-borne diseases affecting livestock have serious impacts in Africa. Trypanosomosis is caused by parasites transmitted by tsetse flies and other blood-sucking Diptera. The animal form of the disease is a scourge for African livestock keepers, is already present in Latin America and Asia, and has the potential to spread further. A human form of the disease also exists, known as human African trypanosomosis or sleeping sickness. Controlling and progressively minimizing the burden of animal trypanosomosis (COMBAT) is a four-year research and innovation project funded by the European Commission, whose ultimate goal is to reduce the burden of animal trypanosomosis (AT) in Africa. The project builds on the progressive control pathway (PCP), a risk-based, step-wise approach to disease reduction or elimination. COMBAT will strengthen AT control and prevention by improving basic knowledge of AT, developing innovative control tools, reinforcing surveillance, rationalizing control strategies, building capacity, and raising awareness. Knowledge gaps on disease epidemiology, vector ecology and competence, and biological aspects of trypanotolerant livestock will be addressed. Environmentally friendly vector control technologies and more effective and adapted diagnostic tools will be developed. Surveillance will be enhanced by developing information systems, strengthening reporting, and mapping and modelling disease risk in Africa and beyond. The socio-economic burden of AT will be assessed at a range of geographical scales. Guidelines for the PCP and harmonized national control strategies and roadmaps will be developed. Gender equality and ethics will be pivotal in all project activities. The COMBAT project benefits from the expertise of African and European research institutions, national veterinary authorities, and international organizations. The project consortium comprises 21 participants, including a geographically balanced representation from 13 African countries, and it will engage a larger number of AT-affected countries through regional initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Boulangé
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Bouaké, 01 BP 1500, Cote d'Ivoire
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Veerle Lejon
- CIRAD, IRD, UMR INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - David Berthier
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Sophie Thévenon
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Geoffrey Gimonneau
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Dakar-Hann, BP 2057, Senegal
| | - Marc Desquesnes
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Toulouse, F-31076, France
| | - Samuel Abah
- Mission Spéciale D'Eradication des Glossines (MSEG), Ministère de l'Elevage, des Pêches et des Industries Animales, Ngaoundéré, BP 263, Cameroon
| | - Prudenciène Agboho
- Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo-Dioulasso, 01 BP 454, Burkina Faso
| | - Kalinga Chilongo
- Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control Unit (TTCU), Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, P.O Box 50197, Lusaka, 10101, Zambia
| | - Tsegaye Gebre
- National Institute for Control and Eradication of Tsetse and Trypanosomosis (NICETT), P.O Box 19917, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Assane Gueye Fall
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA), Dakar-Hann, BP 2057, Senegal
| | - Dramane Kaba
- Institut Pierre Richet (IPR), Institut National de Santé Publique, Bouaké, 01 BP 1500, Cote d'Ivoire
| | - Stefan Magez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, B-1050, Belgium
| | - Daniel Masiga
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | | | - Aldjibert Moukhtar
- Institut de Recherche en Elevage pour le Développement (IRED), N'Djamena, Route de Farcha, BP 433, Chad
| | - Luis Neves
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, 00200, Mozambique
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - Pamela A. Olet
- Kenya Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Council (KENTTEC), Nairobi, 00800, Kenya
| | - Soumaïla Pagabeleguem
- Insectarium de Bobo-Dioulasso – Campagne d'Eradication de la mouche Tsé-tsé et de la Trypanosomose (IBD-CETT), Ministère des ressources animales et halieutiques, Bobo-Dioulasso, 01 BP 1087, Burkina Faso
| | - William Shereni
- Division of Tsetse Control Services (TCD), Ministry of Lands, Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and Rural Development, P.O Box CY52, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Brice Sorli
- Institut d'Electronique et des Systèmes (IES), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34090, France
| | - Moeti O. Taioe
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Agricultural Research Council (ARC), Pretoria, 0110, South Africa
| | | | - Rehab Yagi
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL), Animal Resources Research Corporation, Khartoum, 12217, Sudan
| | - Philippe Solano
- CIRAD, IRD, UMR INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, 00153, Italy
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Boulangé A, Lejon V, Berthier D, Thévenon S, Gimonneau G, Desquesnes M, Abah S, Agboho P, Chilongo K, Gebre T, Fall AG, Kaba D, Magez S, Masiga D, Matovu E, Moukhtar A, Neves L, Olet PA, Pagabeleguem S, Shereni W, Sorli B, Taioe MO, Tejedor Junco MT, Yagi R, Solano P, Cecchi G. The COMBAT project: controlling and progressively minimizing the burden of vector-borne animal trypanosomosis in Africa. OPEN RESEARCH EUROPE 2022; 2:67. [PMID: 37645305 PMCID: PMC10445831 DOI: 10.12688/openreseurope.14759.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Vector-borne diseases affecting livestock have serious impacts in Africa. Trypanosomosis is caused by parasites transmitted by tsetse flies and other blood-sucking Diptera. The animal form of the disease is a scourge for African livestock keepers, is already present in Latin America and Asia, and has the potential to spread further. A human form of the disease also exists, known as human African trypanosomosis or sleeping sickness. Controlling and progressively minimizing the burden of animal trypanosomosis (COMBAT) is a four-year research and innovation project funded by the European Commission, whose ultimate goal is to reduce the burden of animal trypanosomosis (AT) in Africa. The project builds on the progressive control pathway (PCP), a risk-based, step-wise approach to disease reduction or elimination. COMBAT will strengthen AT control and prevention by improving basic knowledge of AT, developing innovative control tools, reinforcing surveillance, rationalizing control strategies, building capacity, and raising awareness. Knowledge gaps on disease epidemiology, vector ecology and competence, and biological aspects of trypanotolerant livestock will be addressed. Environmentally friendly vector control technologies and more effective and adapted diagnostic tools will be developed. Surveillance will be enhanced by developing information systems, strengthening reporting, and mapping and modelling disease risk in Africa and beyond. The socio-economic burden of AT will be assessed at a range of geographical scales. Guidelines for the PCP and harmonized national control strategies and roadmaps will be developed. Gender equality and ethics will be pivotal in all project activities. The COMBAT project benefits from the expertise of African and European research institutions, national veterinary authorities, and international organizations. The project consortium comprises 21 participants, including a geographically balanced representation from 13 African countries, and it will engage a larger number of AT-affected countries through regional initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Boulangé
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Bouaké, 01 BP 1500, Cote d'Ivoire
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Veerle Lejon
- CIRAD, IRD, UMR INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - David Berthier
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Sophie Thévenon
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Geoffrey Gimonneau
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Dakar-Hann, BP 2057, Senegal
| | - Marc Desquesnes
- CIRAD, IRD, INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, Toulouse, F-31076, France
| | - Samuel Abah
- Mission Spéciale D'Eradication des Glossines (MSEG), Ministère de l'Elevage, des Pêches et des Industries Animales, Ngaoundéré, BP 263, Cameroon
| | - Prudenciène Agboho
- Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo-Dioulasso, 01 BP 454, Burkina Faso
| | - Kalinga Chilongo
- Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control Unit (TTCU), Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, P.O Box 50197, Lusaka, 10101, Zambia
| | - Tsegaye Gebre
- National Institute for Control and Eradication of Tsetse and Trypanosomosis (NICETT), P.O Box 19917, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Assane Gueye Fall
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA), Dakar-Hann, BP 2057, Senegal
| | - Dramane Kaba
- Institut Pierre Richet (IPR), Institut National de Santé Publique, Bouaké, 01 BP 1500, Cote d'Ivoire
| | - Stefan Magez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, B-1050, Belgium
| | - Daniel Masiga
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | | | - Aldjibert Moukhtar
- Institut de Recherche en Elevage pour le Développement (IRED), N'Djamena, Route de Farcha, BP 433, Chad
| | - Luis Neves
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, 00200, Mozambique
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - Pamela A. Olet
- Kenya Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Council (KENTTEC), Nairobi, 00800, Kenya
| | - Soumaïla Pagabeleguem
- Insectarium de Bobo-Dioulasso – Campagne d'Eradication de la mouche Tsé-tsé et de la Trypanosomose (IBD-CETT), Ministère des ressources animales et halieutiques, Bobo-Dioulasso, 01 BP 1087, Burkina Faso
| | - William Shereni
- Division of Tsetse Control Services (TCD), Ministry of Lands, Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and Rural Development, P.O Box CY52, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Brice Sorli
- Institut d'Electronique et des Systèmes (IES), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34090, France
| | - Moeti O. Taioe
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Agricultural Research Council (ARC), Pretoria, 0110, South Africa
| | | | - Rehab Yagi
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL), Animal Resources Research Corporation, Khartoum, 12217, Sudan
| | - Philippe Solano
- CIRAD, IRD, UMR INTERTRYP, Univ of Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34398, France
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, 00153, Italy
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Differences in Transporters Rather than Drug Targets Are the Principal Determinants of the Different Innate Sensitivities of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanozoon Subgenus Trypanosomes to Diamidines and Melaminophenyl Arsenicals. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052844. [PMID: 35269985 PMCID: PMC8911344 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The animal trypanosomiases are infections in a wide range of (domesticated) animals with any species of African trypanosome, such as Trypanosoma brucei, T. evansi, T. congolense, T. equiperdum and T. vivax. Symptoms differ between host and infective species and stage of infection and are treated with a small set of decades-old trypanocides. A complication is that not all trypanosome species are equally sensitive to all drugs and the reasons are at best partially understood. Here, we investigate whether drug transporters, mostly identified in T. b. brucei, determine the different drug sensitivities. We report that homologues of the aminopurine transporter TbAT1 and the aquaporin TbAQP2 are absent in T. congolense, while their introduction greatly sensitises this species to diamidine (pentamidine, diminazene) and melaminophenyl (melarsomine) drugs. Accumulation of these drugs in the transgenic lines was much more rapid. T. congolense is also inherently less sensitive to suramin than T. brucei, despite accumulating it faster. Expression of a proposed suramin transporter, located in T. brucei lysosomes, in T. congolense, did not alter its suramin sensitivity. We conclude that for several of the most important classes of trypanocides the presence of specific transporters, rather than drug targets, is the determining factor of drug efficacy.
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Desquesnes M, Gonzatti M, Sazmand A, Thévenon S, Bossard G, Boulangé A, Gimonneau G, Truc P, Herder S, Ravel S, Sereno D, Jamonneau V, Jittapalapong S, Jacquiet P, Solano P, Berthier D. A review on the diagnosis of animal trypanosomoses. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:64. [PMID: 35183235 PMCID: PMC8858479 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05190-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This review focuses on the most reliable and up-to-date methods for diagnosing trypanosomoses, a group of diseases of wild and domestic mammals, caused by trypanosomes, parasitic zooflagellate protozoans mainly transmitted by insects. In Africa, the Americas and Asia, these diseases, which in some cases affect humans, result in significant illness in animals and cause major economic losses in livestock. A number of pathogens are described in this review, including several Salivarian trypanosomes, such as Trypanosoma brucei sspp. (among which are the agents of sleeping sickness, the human African trypanosomiasis [HAT]), Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax (causing “Nagana” or animal African trypanosomosis [AAT]), Trypanosoma evansi (“Surra”) and Trypanosoma equiperdum (“Dourine”), and Trypanosoma cruzi, a Stercorarian trypanosome, etiological agent of the American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease). Diagnostic methods for detecting zoonotic trypanosomes causing Chagas disease and HAT in animals, as well as a diagnostic method for detecting animal trypanosomes in humans (the so-called “atypical human infections by animal trypanosomes” [a-HT]), including T. evansi and Trypanosoma lewisi (a rat parasite), are also reviewed. Our goal is to present an integrated view of the various diagnostic methods and techniques, including those for: (i) parasite detection; (ii) DNA detection; and (iii) antibody detection. The discussion covers various other factors that need to be considered, such as the sensitivity and specificity of the various diagnostic methods, critical cross-reactions that may be expected among Trypanosomatidae, additional complementary information, such as clinical observations and epizootiological context, scale of study and logistic and cost constraints. The suitability of examining multiple specimens and samples using several techniques is discussed, as well as risks to technicians, in the context of specific geographical regions and settings. This overview also addresses the challenge of diagnosing mixed infections with different Trypanosoma species and/or kinetoplastid parasites. Improving and strengthening procedures for diagnosing animal trypanosomoses throughout the world will result in a better control of infections and will significantly impact on “One Health,” by advancing and preserving animal, human and environmental health.
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