The role of the renin-angiotensin system in thoracic aortic aneurysms: clinical implications

Adventitial Fibroblasts in Aortic Aneurysm: Unraveling Pathogenic Contributions to Vascular Disease

Aortic aneurysm (AA) is a degenerative vascular disease that involves aortic dilatation, and, if untreated, it can lead to rupture. Despite its significant impact on the healthcare system, its multifactorial nature and elusive pathophysiology contribute to limited therapeutic interventions that prevent the progression of AA. Thus, further research into the mechanisms underlying AA is paramount. Adventitial fibroblasts are one of the key constituents of the aortic wall, and they play an essential role in maintaining vessel structure and function. However, adventitial fibroblasts remain understudied when compared with endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. Adventitial fibroblasts facilitate the production of extracellular matrix (ECM), providing structural integrity. However, during biomechanical stress and/or injury, adventitial fibroblasts can be activated into myofibroblasts, which move to the site of injury and secrete collagen and cytokines, thereby enhancing the inflammatory response. The overactivation or persistence of myofibroblasts has been shown to initiate pathological vascular remodeling. Therefore, understanding the underlying mechanisms involved in the activation of fibroblasts and in regulating myofibroblast activation may provide a potential therapeutic target to prevent or delay the progression of AA. This review discusses mechanistic insights into myofibroblast activation and associated vascular remodeling, thus illustrating the contribution of fibroblasts to the pathogenesis of AA.

Twenty Years of Studying AngII (Angiotensin II)-Induced Abdominal Aortic Pathologies in Mice: Continuing Questions and Challenges to Provide Insight Into the Human Disease

AngII (angiotensin II) infusion in mice has been used to provide mechanistic insight into human abdominal aortic aneurysms for over 2 decades. This is a technically facile animal model that recapitulates multiple facets of the human disease. Although numerous publications have reported abdominal aortic aneurysms with AngII infusion in mice, there remain many fundamental unanswered questions such as uniformity of describing the pathological characteristics and which cell type is stimulated by AngII to promote abdominal aortic aneurysms. Extrapolation of the findings to provide insight into the human disease has been hindered by the preponderance of studies designed to determine the effects on initiation of abdominal aortic aneurysms, rather than a more clinically relevant scenario of determining efficacy on the established disease. The purpose of this review is to enhance understanding of AngII-induced abdominal aortic pathologies in mice, thereby providing greater insight into the human disease.

An Overview of Investigational and Experimental Drug Treatment Strategies for Marfan Syndrome

Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a heritable connective tissue disorder caused by pathogenic variants in the gene coding for the extracellular matrix protein fibrillin-1. While the disease affects multiple organ systems, the most life-threatening manifestations are aortic aneurysms leading to dissection and rupture. Other cardiovascular complications, including mitral valve prolapse, primary cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmia, also occur more frequently in patients with MFS. The standard medical care relies on cardiovascular imaging at regular intervals, along with pharmacological treatment with β-adrenergic receptor blockers aimed at reducing the aortic growth rate. When aortic dilatation reaches a threshold associated with increased risk of dissection, prophylactic surgical aortic replacement is performed. Although current clinical management has significantly improved the life expectancy of patients with MFS, no cure is available and fatal complications still occur, underscoring the need for new treatment options. In recent years, preclinical studies have identified a number of potentially promising therapeutic targets. Nevertheless, the translation of these results into clinical practice has remained challenging. In this review, we present an overview of the currently available knowledge regarding the underlying pathophysiological processes associated with MFS cardiovascular pathology. We then summarize the treatment options that have been developed based on this knowledge and are currently in different stages of preclinical or clinical development, provide a critical review of the limitations of current studies and highlight potential opportunities for future research.

Transforming Growth Factor-β and the Renin-Angiotensin System in Syndromic Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms: Implications for Treatment

Thoracic aortic aneurysms (TAAs) are permanent pathological dilatations of the thoracic aorta, which can lead to life-threatening complications, such as aortic dissection and rupture. TAAs frequently occur in a syndromic form in individuals with an underlying genetic predisposition, such as Marfan syndrome (MFS) and Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS). Increasing evidence supports an important role for transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in TAA pathology. Eventually, most patients with syndromic TAAs require surgical intervention, as the ability of present medical treatment to attenuate aneurysm growth is limited. Therefore, more effective medical treatment options are urgently needed. Numerous clinical trials investigated the therapeutic potential of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) and β-blockers in patients suffering from syndromic TAAs. This review highlights the contribution of TGF-β signaling, RAS, and impaired mechanosensing abilities of aortic VSMCs in TAA formation. Furthermore, it critically discusses the most recent clinical evidence regarding the possible therapeutic benefit of ARBs and β-blockers in syndromic TAA patients and provides future research perspectives and therapeutic implications.

Captopril versus atenolol to prevent expansion rate of thoracic aortic aneurysms: rationale and design

Thoracic aortic aneurysms are correlated with significant mortality and morbidity. No therapy, however, is effective at limiting aneurysm expansion and preventing rupture. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors can reduce the wall shear stress and inflammation, both of which play vital roles in the expansion of the aneurysm. A total of 636 patients will be randomized into one of three parallel arms, receiving captopril, atenolol or placebo. The primary end point will be the rate of change in the absolute diameter of the aortic root and ascending aorta on MRI of the aorta after 36 months. The trial will investigate the efficacy of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors versus beta-blocker therapy in reducing the growth rate of thoracic aortic aneurysms and rupture. Trial registration number: NCT04224675.

Exogenous Vasohibin-2 Exacerbates Angiotensin II-Induced Ascending Aortic Dilation in Mice

Background: Chronic angiotensin II (AngII) infusion promotes ascending aortic dilation in C57BL/6J mice. Meanwhile, vasohibin-2 (VASH2) is an angiogenesis promoter in neovascularization under various pathologic conditions. The aim of this study was to investigate whether exogenous VASH2 influences chronic AngII-induced ascending aortic dilation.

Methods and Results: Eight–ten-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were injected with adenovirus (Ad) expressing either VASH2 or LacZ. One week after the injection, mice were infused with either AngII or saline s.c. for 3 weeks. Mice were divided into 4 groups: AngII+VASH2, AngII+LacZ, saline+VASH2, and saline+LacZ. Overexpression of VASH2 significantly increased AngII-induced intimal areas as well as the external diameter of the ascending aorta. In addition, VASH2 overexpression promoted ascending aortic medial elastin fragmentation in AngII-infused mice, which was associated with increased matrix metalloproteinase activity and medial smooth muscle cell (SMC) apoptosis. On western blot analysis, accumulation of apoptotic signaling proteins, p21 and p53 was increased in the AngII+VASH2 group. Furthermore, transfection of human aortic SMC with Ad VASH2 increased p21 and p53 protein abundance upon AngII stimulation. Positive TUNEL staining was also detected in the same group of the human aortic SMC.

Conclusions: Exogenous VASH2 exacerbates AngII-induced ascending aortic dilation in vivo, which is associated with increased medial apoptosis and elastin fragmentation.

Reversal of Aortic Enlargement Induced by Increased Biomechanical Forces Requires AT1R Inhibition in Conjunction With AT2R Activation

Objective- Pharmacological inhibition of the AT1R (angiotensin II type 1 receptor) with losartan can attenuate ascending aortic remodeling induced by transverse aortic constriction (TAC). In this study, we investigated the role of the AT2R (angiotensin II type 2 receptor) and MasR (Mas receptor) in TAC-induced ascending aortic dilation and remodeling. Approach and Results- Wild-type C57BL/6J mice were subjected to sham or TAC surgeries in the presence and absence of various drugs. Aortic diameters were assessed by echocardiography, central blood pressure was measured in the ascending aorta 2 weeks post-operation, and histology and gene expression analyses completed. An angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, captopril, decreased systolic blood pressure to the same level as losartan but did not attenuate aortic dilation, adventitial inflammation, medial collagen deposition, elastin breakage, or Mmp9 (matrix metalloproteinase-9) expression when compared with TAC mice. In contrast, co-administration of captopril with an AT2R agonist, compound 21, attenuated aortic dilation, medial collagen content, elastin breaks, and Mmp9 expression, whereas co-administration of captopril with a MasR agonist (AVE0991) did not reverse aortic dilation and led to aberrant aortic remodeling. An AT2R antagonist, PD123319, reversed the protective effects of losartan in TAC mice. Treatment with compound 21 alone showed no effect on TAC-induced aortic enlargement, blood pressure, elastin breakage, or Mmp9 expression. Conclusions- Our data indicate that when AT1R signaling is blocked, AT2R activation is a key modulator to prevent aortic dilation that occurs with TAC. These data suggest that angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor may not be as effective as losartan for slowing aneurysm growth because losartan requires intact AT2R signaling to prevent aortic enlargement.

Alamandine attenuates arterial remodelling induced by transverse aortic constriction in mice

Aims: The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays an important role in the pathophysiology of vascular diseases, especially as a mediator of inflammation and tissue remodelling. Alamandine (Ala¹-angiotensin-(1-7)) is a new biologically active peptide from the RAS, interacting with Mas-related G-protein-coupled receptor member D. Although a growing number of studies reveal the cardioprotective effects of alamandine, there is a paucity of data on its participation in vascular remodelling associated events. In the present study, we investigated the effects of alamandine on ascending aorta remodelling after transverse aortic constriction (TAC) in mice. Methods and results: C57BL/6J male mice were divided into the following groups: Sham (sham-operated), TAC (operated) and TAC+ALA (operated and treated with alamandine-HPβCD (2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin), 30 μg/kg/day, by gavage). Oral administration of alamandine for 14 days attenuated arterial remodelling by decreasing ascending aorta media layer thickness and the cells density in the adventitia induced by TAC. Alamandine administration attenuated ascending aorta fibrosis induced by TAC, through a reduction in the following parameters; total collagen deposition, expression collagen III and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) transcripts, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) activity and vascular expression of MMP-2. Importantly, alamandine decreased vascular expression of proinflammatory genes as CCL2, tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and was able to increase expression of MRC1 and FIZZ1, pro-resolution markers, after TAC surgery. Conclusion: Alamandine treatment attenuates vascular remodelling after TAC, at least in part, through anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory effects. Hence, this work opens new avenues for the use of this heptapeptide also as a therapeutic target for vascular disease.

Decreased mitochondrial respiration in aneurysmal aortas of Fibulin-4 mutant mice is linked to PGC1A regulation

Aim

Thoracic aortic aneurysms are a life-threatening condition often diagnosed too late. To discover novel robust biomarkers, we aimed to better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying aneurysm formation.

Methods and results

In Fibulin-4R/R mice, the extracellular matrix protein Fibulin-4 is 4-fold reduced, resulting in progressive ascending aneurysm formation and early death around 3 months of age. We performed proteomics and genomics studies on Fibulin-4R/R mouse aortas. Intriguingly, we observed alterations in mitochondrial protein composition in Fibulin-4R/R aortas. Consistently, functional studies in Fibulin-4R/R vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) revealed lower oxygen consumption rates, but increased acidification rates. Yet, mitochondria in Fibulin-4R/R VSMCs showed no aberrant cytoplasmic localization. We found similar reduced mitochondrial respiration in Tgfbr-1M318R/+ VSMCs, a mouse model for Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS). Interestingly, also human fibroblasts from Marfan (FBN1) and LDS (TGFBR2 and SMAD3) patients showed lower oxygen consumption. While individual mitochondrial Complexes I-V activities were unaltered in Fibulin-4R/R heart and muscle, these tissues showed similar decreased oxygen consumption. Furthermore, aortas of aneurysmal Fibulin-4R/R mice displayed increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. Consistent with these findings, gene expression analyses revealed dysregulation of metabolic pathways. Accordingly, blood ketone levels of Fibulin-4R/R mice were reduced and liver fatty acids were decreased, while liver glycogen was increased, indicating dysregulated metabolism at the organismal level. As predicted by gene expression analysis, the activity of PGC1α, a key regulator between mitochondrial function and organismal metabolism, was downregulated in Fibulin-4R/R VSMCs. Increased TGFβ reduced PGC1α levels, indicating involvement of TGFβ signalling in PGC1α regulation. Activation of PGC1α restored the decreased oxygen consumption in Fibulin-4R/R VSMCs and improved their reduced growth potential, emphasizing the importance of this key regulator.

Conclusion

Our data indicate altered mitochondrial function and metabolic dysregulation, leading to increased ROS levels and altered energy production, as a novel mechanism, which may contribute to thoracic aortic aneurysm formation.

AT1-receptor blockade, but not renin inhibition, reduces aneurysm growth and cardiac failure in fibulin-4 mice

AIMS

Increasing evidence supports a role for the angiotensin II-AT1-receptor axis in aneurysm development. Here, we studied whether counteracting this axis via stimulation of AT2 receptors is beneficial. Such stimulation occurs naturally during AT1-receptor blockade with losartan, but not during renin inhibition with aliskiren.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Aneurysmal homozygous fibulin-4 mice, displaying a four-fold reduced fibulin-4 expression, were treated with placebo, losartan, aliskiren, or the β-blocker propranolol from day 35 to 100. Their phenotype includes cystic media degeneration, aortic regurgitation, left ventricular dilation, reduced ejection fraction, and fractional shortening. Although losartan and aliskiren reduced hemodynamic stress and increased renin similarly, only losartan increased survival. Propranolol had no effect. No drug rescued elastic fiber fragmentation in established aneurysms, although losartan did reduce aneurysm size. Losartan also increased ejection fraction, decreased LV diameter, and reduced cardiac pSmad2 signaling. None of these effects were seen with aliskiren or propranolol. Longitudinal micro-CT measurements, a novel method in which each mouse serves as its own control, revealed that losartan reduced LV growth more than aneurysm growth, presumably because the heart profits both from the local (cardiac) effects of losartan and its effects on aortic root remodeling.

CONCLUSION

Losartan, but not aliskiren or propranolol, improved survival in fibulin-4 mice. This most likely relates to its capacity to improve structure and function of both aorta and heart. The absence of this effect during aliskiren treatment, despite a similar degree of blood pressure reduction and renin-angiotensin system blockade, suggests that it might be because of AT2-receptor stimulation.

Angiotensin II Induces an Increase in Matrix Metalloproteinase 2 Expression in Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells of Ascending Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms Through JNK, ERK1/2, and p38 MAPK Activation

In this study, we hypothesized that angiotensin II (Ang II) induces matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) upregulation in aneurysmal smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) derived from ascending thoracic aortic aneurysms (ATAAs). We compared MMP-2 protein levels in ascending aortic specimens using Western blot and plasma concentrations by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay between ATAA (n = 40) and coronary heart disease patients (n = 40). Additionally, the protein level of angiotensinogen (AGT) in the ascending aorta and the plasma concentration of Ang II were detected by Western blot and radioimmunoassay, respectively, in ATAA and coronary heart disease patients. In ATAA patients, Ang II and MMP-2 plasma levels were significantly increased (P < 0.05). Additionally, AGT and MMP-2 protein levels in the aorta of ATAA patients were higher (P < 0.01). Enhanced AGT suggested that the amount of Ang II in aneurysmal aorta specimens may be also increased, which was confirmed by immunofluorescent staining for Ang II. Moreover, we investigated the effect of Ang II on MMP-2 upregulation by ASMCs and determined the Ang II receptors and intracellular signaling pathways that are involved. Our results showed that treatment with Ang II significantly increased the expression of MMP-2 through the Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R) and activated the 3 major mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), JNK, ERK1/2, and p38 MAPK. In conclusion, these results indicate that Ang II can induce MMP-2 expression elevation through AT1R and MAPK pathways in ASMCs and suggest that there is therapeutic potential for angiotensin receptor blocker drugs and MAPK inhibitors in the prevention and treatment of ATAAs.

Losartan Treatment Protects Retinal Ganglion Cells and Alters Scleral Remodeling in Experimental Glaucoma

Purpose

To determine if oral losartan treatment decreases the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death caused by experimental intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation in mice.

Methods

We produced IOP increase in CD1 mice and performed unilateral optic nerve crush. Mice received oral losartan, spironolactone, enalapril, or no drug to test effects of inhibiting angiotensin receptors. IOP was monitored by Tonolab, and blood pressure was monitored by tail cuff device. RGC loss was measured in masked axon counts and RGC bodies by β-tubulin labeling. Scleral changes that could modulate RGC injury were measured including axial length, scleral thickness, and retinal layer thicknesses, pressure-strain behavior in inflation testing, and study of angiotensin receptors and pathways by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry.

Results

Losartan treatment prevented significant RGC loss (median loss = 2.5%, p = 0.13), while median loss with water, spironolactone, and enalapril treatments were 26%, 28% and 43%; p < 0.0001). The lower RGC loss with losartan was significantly less than the loss with spironolactone or enalapril (regression model p = 0.001; drug treatment group term p = 0.01). Both losartan and enalapril significantly lowered blood pressure (p< 0.001), but losartan was protective, while enalapril led to worse than water-treated RGC loss. RGC loss after crush injury was unaffected by losartan treatment (difference from control p = 0.9). Survival of RGC in cell culture was not prolonged by sartan treatment. Axonal transport blockade after 3 day IOP elevations was less in losartan-treated than in control glaucoma eyes (p = 0.007). Losartan inhibited effects of glaucoma, including reduction in extracellular signal-related kinase activity and modification of glaucoma-related changes in scleral thickness and creep under controlled IOP.

Conclusions

The neuroprotective effect of losartan in mouse glaucoma is associated with adaptive changes in the sclera expressed at the optic nerve head.

Angiotensin II induces an increase in MMP-2 expression in idiopathic ascending aortic aneurysm via AT1 receptor and JNK pathway

The cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for human idiopathic ascending aortic aneurysm (IAAA) remain unknown. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) is a key enzyme for the degradation of extracellular matrix in aneurysmal walls. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of the angiotensin II (Ang II) pathway in MMP-2 induction in IAAA aortic walls. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis were used to compare the MMP-2 mRNA and protein levels in ascending aortic specimens with those in IAAA patients (n = 10) and heart transplant donors (n = 5) without any aortopathy. It was found that MMP-2 expression was significantly increased, which was associated with elastic lamellae disruption in IAAA walls. Additionally, the expression levels of angiotensinogen (AGT) and Ang II in the ascending aortic tissues from individuals with and without IAAAs were detected by western blot analysis and radioimmunoassay, respectively. The results demonstrated that the expressions of AGT and Ang II protein were significantly increased in the ascending aortic tissues of IAAA patients. Furthermore, whether Ang II induces MMP-2 expression was investigated using human IAAA walls ex vivo culture. It was found that exogenous Ang II increased the MMP-2 expression in a dose-dependent manner, which was completely inhibited by the Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R) inhibitor candesartan and was mediated by c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation. Taken together, these results indicate that Ang II can induce an increase of MMP-2 expression via AT1R and JNK in ex vivo cultured IAAA aortic walls, and suggest that angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) drugs and JNK inhibitors have the potential in the prevention or treatment of IAAAs.

Hypertension: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system alterations

Blockers of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), that is, renin inhibitors, angiotensin (Ang)-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, Ang II type 1 receptor antagonists, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, are a cornerstone in the treatment of hypertension. How exactly they exert their effect, in particular in patients with low circulating RAAS activity, also taking into consideration the so-called Ang II/aldosterone escape that often occurs after initial blockade, is still incompletely understood. Multiple studies have tried to find parameters that predict the response to RAAS blockade, allowing a personalized treatment approach. Consequently, the question should now be answered on what basis (eg, sex, ethnicity, age, salt intake, baseline renin, ACE or aldosterone, and genetic variance) a RAAS blocker can be chosen to treat an individual patient. Are all blockers equal? Does optimal blockade imply maximum RAAS blockade, for example, by combining ≥2 RAAS blockers or by simply increasing the dose of 1 blocker? Exciting recent investigations reveal a range of unanticipated extrarenal effects of aldosterone, as well as a detailed insight in the genetic causes of primary aldosteronism, and mineralocorticoid receptor blockers have now become an important treatment option for resistant hypertension. Finally, apart from the deleterious ACE-Ang II-Ang II type 1 receptor arm, animal studies support the existence of protective aminopeptidase A-Ang III-Ang II type 2 receptor and ACE2-Ang-(1 to 7)-Mas receptor arms, paving the way for multiple new treatment options. This review provides an update about all these aspects, critically discussing the many controversies and allowing the reader to obtain a full understanding of what we currently know about RAAS alterations in hypertension.

Accentuating and Opposing Factors Leading to Development of Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms Not Due to Genetic or Inherited Conditions

Understanding and unraveling the pathophysiology of thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA), a vascular disease with a potentially high-mortality rate, is one of the next frontiers in vascular biology. The processes leading to the formation of TAA, of unknown cause, so-called degenerative TAA, are complex. This review advances the concept of promoters and inhibitors of the development of degenerative TAA. Promoters of TAA development include age, blood pressure elevation, increased pulse pressure, neurohumeral factors increasing blood pressure, inflammation specifically IFN-γ, IL-1 β, IL-6, TNF-α, and S100 A12; the coagulation system specifically plasmin, platelets, and thrombin as well as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). SMAD-2 signaling and specific microRNAs modulate TAA development. The major inhibitors or factors opposing TAA development are the constituents of the aortic wall (elastic lamellae, collagen, fibulins, fibronectin, proteoglycans, and vascular smooth muscle cells), which maintain normal aortic dimensions in the face of aortic wall stress, specific tissue MMP inhibitors, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, protease nexin-1, and Syndecans. Increases in promoters and reductions in inhibitors expand the thoracic aorta leading to TAA formation.

The renin-angiotensin system and its involvement in vascular disease

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of many types of cardiovascular diseases including cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, aneurysms, stroke, coronary artery disease and vascular injury. Besides the classical regulatory effects on blood pressure and sodium homoeostasis, the RAS is involved in the regulation of contractility and remodelling of the vessel wall. Numerous studies have shown beneficial effect of inhibition of this system in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. However, dysregulation and overexpression of the RAS, through different molecular mechanisms, also induces, the initiation of vascular damage. The key effector peptide of the RAS, angiotensin II (Ang II) promotes cell proliferation, apoptosis, fibrosis, oxidative stress and inflammation, processes known to contribute to remodelling of the vasculature. In this review, we focus on the components that are under the influence of the RAS and contribute to the development and progression of vascular disease; extracellular matrix defects, atherosclerosis and ageing. Furthermore, the beneficial therapeutic effects of inhibition of the RAS on the vasculature are discussed, as well as the need for additive effects on top of RAS inhibition.

Angiotensin II increases matrix metalloproteinase 2 expression in human aortic smooth muscle cells via AT1R and ERK1/2

Increased levels of angiotensin II (Ang II) and activated matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) produced by human aortic smooth muscle cells (human ASMCs) have recently been implicated in the pathogenesis of thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA). Additionally, angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R)-mediated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 activation contributes to TAA development in Marfan Syndrome. However, there is scant data regarding the relationship between Ang II and MMP-2 expression in human ASMCs. Therefore, we investigated the effect of Ang II on MMP-2 expression in human ASMCs and used Western blotting to identify the Ang II receptors and intracellular signaling pathways involved. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunofluorescence data demonstrated that Ang II receptors were expressed on human ASMCs. Additionally, Ang II increased the expression of Ang II type 2 receptor (AT2R) but not AT1R at both the transcriptional and translational levels. Furthermore, Western blotting showed that Ang II increased MMP-2 expression in human ASMCs in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This response was completely inhibited by the AT1R inhibitor candesartan but not by the AT2R blocker PD123319. In addition, Ang II-induced upregulation of MMP-2 was mediated by the activation of ERK1/2, whereas p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) had no effect on this process. In conclusion, these results indicate that Ang II can increase the expression of MMP-2 via AT1 receptor and ERK1/2 signaling pathways in human ASMCs and suggest that antagonists of AT1R and ERK1/2 may be useful for treating TAAs.

Smooth muscle cell deletion of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 augments angiotensin II-induced superior mesenteric arterial and ascending aortic aneurysms

OBJECTIVE

Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1), a multifunctional protein involved in endocytosis and cell signaling pathways, leads to several vascular pathologies when deleted in vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs). The purpose of this study was to determine whether LRP1 deletion in SMCs influenced angiotensin II-induced arterial pathologies.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

LRP1 protein abundance was equivalent in selected arterial regions, but SMC-specific LRP1 depletion had no effect on abdominal and ascending aortic diameters in young mice. To determine the effects of LRP1 deficiency on angiotensin II vascular responses, SMC-specific LRP1 (smLRP1(+/+)) and smLRP1-deficient (smLRP1(-/-)) mice were infused with saline, angiotensin II, or norepinephrine. Several smLRP(-/-) mice died of superior mesenteric arterial (SMA) rupture during angiotensin II infusion. In surviving mice, angiotensin II profoundly augmented SMA dilation in smLRP1(-/-) mice. SMA dilation was blood pressure dependent as demonstrated by a similar response during norepinephrine infusion. SMA dilation was also associated with profound macrophage accumulation, but minimal elastin fragmentation. Angiotensin II infusion led to no significant differences in abdominal aorta diameters between smLRP1(+/+) and smLRP1(-/-) mice. In contrast, ascending aortic dilation was exacerbated markedly in angiotensin II-infused smLRP1(-/-) mice, but norepinephrine had no significant effect on either aortic region. Ascending aortas of smLRP1(-/-) mice infused with angiotensin II had minimal macrophage accumulation but significantly increased elastin fragmentation and mRNA abundance of several LRP1 ligands including MMP-2 (matrix metalloproteinase-2) and uPA (urokinase plasminogen activator).

CONCLUSIONS

smLRP1 deficiency had no effect on angiotensin II-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm formation. Conversely, angiotensin II infusion in smLRP1(-/-) mice exacerbated SMA and ascending aorta dilation. Dilation in these 2 regions had differential association with blood pressure and divergent pathological characteristics.

Bone marrow from blotchy mice is dispensable to regulate blood copper and aortic pathologies but required for inflammatory mediator production in LDLR-deficient mice during chronic angiotensin II infusion

BACKGROUND

The blotchy mouse caused by mutations of ATP7A develops low blood copper and aortic aneurysm and rupture. Although the aortic pathologies are believed primarily due to congenital copper deficiencies in connective tissue, perinatal copper supplementation does not produce significant therapeutic effects, hinting additional mechanisms in the symptom development, such as an independent effect of the ATP7A mutations during adulthood.

METHODS

We investigated if bone marrow from blotchy mice contributes to these symptoms. For these experiments, bone marrow from blotchy mice (blotchy marrow group) and healthy littermate controls (control marrow group) was used to reconstitute recipient mice (irradiated male low-density lipoprotein receptor -/- mice), which were then infused with angiotensin II (1,000 ng/kg/min) for 4 weeks.

RESULTS

By using Mann-Whitney U test, our results showed that there was no significant difference in the copper concentrations in plasma and hematopoietic cells between these 2 groups. And plasma level of triglycerides was significantly reduced in blotchy marrow group compared with that in control marrow group (P < 0.05), whereas there were no significant differences in cholesterol and phospholipids between these 2 groups. Furthermore, a bead-based multiplex immunoassay showed that macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1β, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, MCP-3, MCP-5, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-1, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A production was significantly reduced in the plasma of blotchy marrow group compared with that in control marrow group (P < 0.05). More important, although angiotensin II infusion increased maximal external aortic diameters in thoracic and abdominal segments, there was no significant difference in the aortic diameters between these 2 groups. Furthermore, aortic ruptures, including transmural breaks of the elastic laminae in the abdominal segment and lethal rupture in the thoracic segment, were observed in blotchy marrow group but not in control marrow group; however, there was no significant difference in the incidence of aortic ruptures between these 2 groups (P = 0.10; Fisher's exact test).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our study indicated that the effect of bone marrow from blotchy mice during adulthood is dispensable in the regulation of blood copper, plasma cholesterol and phospholipids levels, and aortic pathologies, but contributes to a reduction of MIP-1β, MCP-1, MCP-3, MCP-5, TIMP-1, and VEGF-A production and triglycerides concentration in plasma. Our study also hints that bone marrow transplantation cannot serve as an independent treatment option.

Angiotensin II induces region-specific medial disruption during evolution of ascending aortic aneurysms

Angiotensin II (Ang II) promotes development of ascending aortic aneurysms (AAs), but progression of this pathology is undefined. We evaluated factors potentially involved in progression, and determined the temporal sequence of tissue changes during development of Ang II-induced ascending AAs. Ang II infusion into C57BL/6J mice promoted rapid expansion of the ascending aorta, with significant increases within 5 days, as determined by both in vivo ultrasonography and ex vivo sequential acquisition of tissues. Rates of expansion were not significantly different in LDL receptor-null mice fed a saturated fat-enriched diet, demonstrating a lack of effect of hypercholesterolemia. Augmenting systolic blood pressure with norepinephrine infusion had no significant effect on ascending aortic expansion. Pathological changes observed within 5 days of Ang II infusion included increased medial thickness and intramural hemorrhage characterized by erythrocyte extravasation in outer lamellar layers of the media. Intramedial hemorrhage was not observed after prolonged Ang II infusion, although partial medial disruption was present. Elastin fragmentation and transmural medial breaks of the ascending aorta were observed with continued Ang II infusion, which were restricted to anterior aspects. CD45(+) cells accumulated in adventitia but were minimal in media. Similar pathology was observed in tissues obtained from patients with ascending AAs. In conclusion, Ang II promotes ascending AAs through region-specific changes that are independent of hypercholesterolemia or systolic blood pressure.

Obesity and diabetes cause cognitive dysfunction in the absence of accelerated β-amyloid deposition in a novel murine model of mixed or vascular dementia

Mid-life obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) confer a modest, increased risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD), though the underlying mechanisms are unknown. We have created a novel mouse model that recapitulates features of T2DM and AD by crossing morbidly obese and diabetic db/db mice with APPΔNL/ΔNLx PS1P264L/P264L knock-in mice. These mice (db/AD) retain many features of the parental lines (e.g. extreme obesity, diabetes, and parenchymal deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ)). The combination of the two diseases led to additional pathologies-perhaps most striking of which was the presence of severe cerebrovascular pathology, including aneurysms and small strokes. Cortical Aβ deposition was not significantly increased in the diabetic mice, though overall expression of presenilin was elevated. Surprisingly, Aβ was not deposited in the vasculature or removed to the plasma, and there was no stimulation of activity or expression of major Aβ-clearing enzymes (neprilysin, insulin degrading enzyme, or endothelin-converting enzyme). The db/AD mice displayed marked cognitive impairment in the Morris Water Maze, compared to either db/db or APPΔNLx PS1P264L mice. We conclude that the diabetes and/or obesity in these mice leads to a destabilization of the vasculature, leading to strokes and that this, in turn, leads to a profound cognitive impairment and that this is unlikely to be directly dependent on Aβ deposition. This model of mixed or vascular dementia provides an exciting new avenue of research into the mechanisms underlying the obesity-related risk for age-related dementia, and will provide a useful tool for the future development of therapeutics.

Aortic aneurysms in Loeys-Dietz syndrome - a tale of two pathways?

Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) is a connective tissue disorder that is characterized by skeletal abnormalities, craniofacial malformations, and a high predisposition for aortic aneurysm. In this issue of the JCI, Gallo et al. developed transgenic mouse strains harboring missense mutations in the genes encoding type I or II TGF-β receptors. These mice exhibited several LDS-associated phenotypes. Despite being functionally defective, the mutated receptors enhanced TGF-β signaling in vivo, inferred by detection of increased levels of phosphorylated Smad2. Aortic aneurysms in these LDS mice were ablated by treatment with the Ang II type 1 (AT1) receptor antagonist losartan. The results from this study will foster further interest into the potential therapeutic implications of AT1 receptor antagonists.

Medical treatment for thoracic aortic aneurysm - much more work to be done

A 45 year old executive presents to your office for risk assessment after learning that his sister required an ascending aortic aneurysm repair. He is a well-informed man, concerned about his personal risk for aortic disease, and undergoes a cardiac screen which reveals a dilated ascending aortic aneurysm, measuring a maximal diameter of 4.4 cm. His aortic valve is tricuspid. He is non-Marfanoid and asymptomatic. He realizes that he does not yet meet guideline criteria for aortic surgery, but he is also cognizant of the fact that he is approaching the cut-off for surgical intervention. He wishes to minimize his future risk of aortic rupture, dissection and aortic expansion and seeks your input. Should 'medical treatment' should be employed at this stage? Is there sufficient basis to initiate any form of pharmacotherapy? Would you start a beta-adrenergic receptor blocker, an angiotensin receptor blocker, a matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor (doxycycline), or a statin to reduce his aortic risk for rupture, dissection or need for surgical repair? Does your clinical decision match evidence from existing data? Our paper will address these issues among other questions relevant to the role of medical therapy for thoracic aortic disease.

Genetic biomarkers in aortopathy

The field of aortopathy, in common with other genomic disorders, is undergoing a revolution. This is largely driven by the implementation of newer forms of genetic sequencing (massively parallel or next-generation sequencing). Advantages conferred by this technology include reduced costs, reduced sequencing time and the ability to simultaneously test multiple genes. This has a significant advantage in the identification of genes disrupted in heritable aortopathies. These advances are enabling scientists and clinicians to identify key molecular pathways; translating fundamental genetic findings into a better understanding of disease mechanisms is ultimately leading to effective treatments. In outlining contemporary knowledge of genetic biomarkers in aortopathy we seek to demonstrate that the era of genomically orientated decision-making is here.

An underused opportunity to introduce ACE inhibitors and influence prognosis: observational study of patients undergoing aortic surgery

OBJECTIVE

To asses whether Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are underused in patients with aortic disease due to concerns regarding flow limiting (>70%) renal artery stenosis (RAS).

DESIGN

A prospective analysis of patients admitted for aortic surgery was performed (January-July 2009). Co-morbidity, ACEI/ARB use and renal function were recorded. Computerised tomography (CT) angiograms were reviewed by a single blinded radiologist for the presence and severity of RAS.

SETTING

St Mary's Hospital, Vascular Unit, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK.

PARTICIPANTS

75 randomly selected patients admitted to our vascular unit including elective and emergency admissions.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Indications for ACEI therapy were identified as determined by the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidance. The ratio of the measurement distal to the stenosis and at the area of maximal stenosis on CT angiography were used to calculate the percentage RAS.

RESULTS

60 patients were identified (15 patients excluded due to previously modified renal vessels). The median age was 73 [interquartile range 68, 77]. Their underlying aortic disease included 52 (87%) aortic aneurysm, 6 (10%) with aortic dissection, 1 (1.7%) patient with occlusive disease and 1 (1.7%) patient with mycotic disease. Overall, 56/60 (93%) patients had at least one indication for ACEI therapy. 33/60 (55%) of patients were already receiving ACEI. CT angiogram examination demonstrated 17/60 (28%) patients have RAS of some degree, of which only 9/60 (15%) have flow limiting RAS.

CONCLUSION

A large proportion of aortic patients do not receive ACEI/ARB therapy despite definite indications and a low prevalence of flow-limiting RAS is low. After the exclusion of RAS at angiography, careful introduction of ACEI therapy with appropriate monitoring could be considered for many more patients.

High prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in patients with inherited connective tissue disorders

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an emerging chronic inflammatory disease mediated by immune hypersensitization to multiple foods and strongly associated with atopy and esophageal remodeling.

OBJECTIVE

We provide clinical and molecular evidence indicating a high prevalence of EoE in patients with inherited connective tissue disorders (CTDs).

METHODS

We examined the rate of EoE among patients with CTDs and subsequently analyzed esophageal mRNA transcript profiles in patients with EoE with or without CTD features.

RESULTS

We report a cohort of 42 patients with EoE with a CTD-like syndrome, representing 0.8% of patients with CTDs and 1.3% of patients with EoE within our hospital-wide electronic medical record database and our EoE research registry, respectively. An 8-fold risk of EoE in patients with CTDs (relative risk, 8.1; 95% confidence limit, 5.1-12.9; χ(2)1 = 112.0; P < 10(-3)) was present compared with the general population. Esophageal transcript profiling identified a distinct subset of genes, including COL8A2, in patients with EoE and CTDs.

CONCLUSION

There is a remarkable association of EoE with CTDs and evidence for a differential expression of genes involved in connective tissue repair in this cohort. Thus, we propose stratification of patients with EoE and CTDs into a subset referred to as EoE-CTD.

Conundrum of angiotensin II and TGF-β interactions in aortic aneurysms

Angiotensin II (AngII) has been invoked as a principal mediator for the development and progression of both thoracic and abdominal aortic aneurysms. While there is consistency in experimental and clinical studies that overactivation of the renin angiotensin system promotes aortic aneurysm development, there are many unknowns regarding the mechanistic basis underlying AngII-induced aneurysms. Interactions of AngII with TGF-β in both thoracic and abdominal aortic aneurysms have been the focus of recent studies. While these studies have demonstrated profound effects of manipulating TGF-β activity on AngII-induced aortic aneurysms, they have also led to more questions regarding the interactions between AngII and this multifunctional cytokine. This review compiled the recent literature to provide insights into understanding the potentially complex interactions between AngII and TGF-β in the development of aortic aneurysms.

Involvement of the renin-angiotensin system in abdominal and thoracic aortic aneurysms

Aortic aneurysms are relatively common maladies that may lead to the devastating consequence of aortic rupture. AAAs (abdominal aortic aneurysms) and TAAs (thoracic aortic aneurysms) are two common forms of aneurysmal diseases in humans that appear to have distinct pathologies and mechanisms. Despite this divergence, there are numerous and consistent demonstrations that overactivation of the RAS (renin-angiotensin system) promotes both AAAs and TAAs in animal models. For example, in mice, both AAAs and TAAs are formed during infusion of AngII (angiotensin II), the major bioactive peptide in the RAS. There are many proposed mechanisms by which the RAS initiates and perpetuates aortic aneurysms, including effects of AngII on a diverse array of cell types and mediators. These experimental findings are complemented in humans by genetic association studies and retrospective analyses of clinical data that generally support a role of the RAS in both AAAs and TAAs. Given the lack of a validated pharmacological therapy for any form of aortic aneurysm, there is a pressing need to determine whether the consistent findings on the role of the RAS in animal models are translatable to humans afflicted with these diseases. The present review compiles the recent literature that has shown the RAS as a critical component in the pathogenesis of aortic aneurysms.

Angiotensin II type 2 receptor agonists: where should they be applied?

INTRODUCTION

Angiotensin II, the active endproduct of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), exerts its effects via angiotensin II type 1 and type 2 (AT(1), AT(2)) receptors. AT(1) receptors mediate all well-known effects of angiotensin II, ranging from vasoconstriction to tissue remodeling. Thus, to treat cardiovascular disease, RAS blockade aims at preventing angiotensin II-AT(1) receptor interaction. Yet RAS blockade is often accompanied by rises in angiotensin II, which may exert beneficial effects via AT(2) receptors.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes our current knowledge on AT(2) receptors, describing their location, function(s), endogenous agonist(s) and intracellular signaling cascades. It discusses the beneficial effects obtained with C21, a recently developed AT(2) receptor agonist. Important questions that are addressed are do these receptors truly antagonize AT(1) receptor-mediated effects? What about their role in the diseased state and their heterodimerization with other receptors?

EXPERT OPINION

The general view that AT(2) receptors exclusively exert beneficial effects has been challenged, and in pathological models, their function sometimes mimics that of AT(1) receptors, for example, inducing vasoconstriction and cardiac hypertrophy. Yet given its upregulation in various pathological conditions, the AT(2) receptor remains a promising target for treatment, allowing effects beyond blood pressure-lowering, for example, in stroke, aneurysm formation, inflammation and myocardial fibrosis.

Relevance of angiotensin II-induced aortic pathologies in mice to human aortic aneurysms

Angiotensin II infusion in mice promotes abdominal and thoracic aortic aneurysms, which provides a feasible approach to study the mechanisms of these two distinct diseases.

Impaired vascular contractility and aortic wall degeneration in fibulin-4 deficient mice: effect of angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor blockade

Medial degeneration is a key feature of aneurysm disease and aortic dissection. In a murine aneurysm model we investigated the structural and functional characteristics of aortic wall degeneration in adult fibulin-4 deficient mice and the potential therapeutic role of the angiotensin (Ang) II type 1 (AT₁) receptor antagonist losartan in preventing aortic media degeneration. Adult mice with 2-fold (heterozygous Fibulin-4^+/R) and 4-fold (homozygous Fibulin-4^R/R) reduced expression of fibulin-4 displayed the histological features of cystic media degeneration as found in patients with aneurysm or dissection, including elastin fiber fragmentation, loss of smooth muscle cells, and deposition of ground substance in the extracellular matrix of the aortic media. The aortic contractile capacity, determined by isometric force measurements, was diminished, and was associated with dysregulation of contractile genes as shown by aortic transcriptome analysis. These structural and functional alterations were accompanied by upregulation of TGF-β signaling in aortas from fibulin-4 deficient mice, as identified by genome-scaled network analysis as well as by immunohistochemical staining for phosphorylated Smad2, an intracellular mediator of TGF-β. Tissue levels of Ang II, a regulator of TGF-β signaling, were increased. Prenatal treatment with the AT₁ receptor antagonist losartan, which blunts TGF-β signaling, prevented elastic fiber fragmentation in the aortic media of newborn Fibulin-4^R/R mice. Postnatal losartan treatment reduced haemodynamic stress and improved lifespan of homozygous knockdown fibulin-4 animals, but did not affect aortic vessel wall structure. In conclusion, the AT₁ receptor blocker losartan can prevent aortic media degeneration in a non-Marfan syndrome aneurysm mouse model. In established aortic aneurysms, losartan does not affect aortic architecture, but does improve survival. These findings may extend the potential therapeutic application of inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system to the preventive treatment of aneurysm disease.