Modeling hypohedonia following repeated social defeat: Individual vulnerability and dopaminergic involvement

Low (micro)doses of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-propylamphetamine (DOPR) increase effortful motivation in low-performing mice

Treating amotivated states remains difficult. Classical psychedelic drugs (5-HT2A receptor agonists) such as LSD and psilocybin have shown therapeutic potential in treating such symptoms, but their development has been hindered by their undesirable hallucinogenic effects. There is increasing evidence that administration of psychedelics at dose levels too low to evoke a hallucinogenic effect ("microdoses") may have therapeutic value in contexts of mood and cognition. 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-propylamphetamine (DOPR) is a psychedelic phenethylamine compound acting as a 5-HT2A receptor agonist. We used a combination of behavioral assays to determine the motivational and hallucinogenic-like effects of DOPR and identify the dose ranges at which each of these effects were observed. In mice, the motivational effects of psychedelic compounds were assessed using the progressive ratio breakpoint task (PRBT, n = 80), a translational assay sensitive to changes in motivation. Psychedelic-like effects were gauged using the mouse head-twitch response (HTR, n = 72) assay, a preclinical readout of psychedelic potential. Significant improvements in PRBT performance were seen at doses as low as 0.0106 mg/kg in animals with low baseline PRBT scores while high-performing PRBT mice were unaffected. DOPR only induced significant HTR at doses ≥0.1 mg/kg. Together, these results indicate that the psychedelic DOPR may increase motivation in those with a low motivated state. Importantly, these effects may be attainable at low doses below the threshold required to induce psychedelic subjective effects. Hence, the ability of low doses of DOPR and other psychedelic drugs to alleviate amotivated states in rodents manipulated to induce disease-relevant states should be investigated.

Divergent changes in social stress-induced motivation in male and female mice

Exposure to stressors has been shown to dysregulate motivated behaviors in a bidirectional manner over time. The relationship between stress and motivation is relevant to psychological disorders, including depression, binge eating, and substance use disorder; however, this relationship is not well characterized, especially in females, despite their increased risk of these disorders. Social defeat stress is a common model to study stress-induced motivation changes, however, historically this model excluded females due to lack of female-to-female aggression and unreliable male-to-female aggression. Additionally, changes in motivation are often assessed well after stress exposure ends, potentially missing or occluding changes to motivation during stress. Recently, the chronic non-discriminatory social defeat stress (CNSDS) model has demonstrated social defeat of male and female C57BL/6J mice by simultaneously exposing both mice to an aggressive male CD-1 mouse. Here we use this model to directly compare changes in the motivated behavior of male and female mice during and following chronic stress. We hypothesized that motivated behavioral responses would be dysregulated during stress and that the effects would worsen as the stress exposure continued. To monitor motivated behavior, mice had access to a Feeding Experimental Device.3 (FED3), a home cage device for operant responding. Operant responding was monitored prior to, during, and after stress by measuring nose pokes for sucrose pellets on a modified progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement. Our results demonstrated divergent behavioral outcomes between males and female mice in response to stress; where male mice increased motivated behavior during stress only, whereas female mice exhibited a decrease in motivation during and after stress. This study highlights the need to investigate the effects of stress-induced motivation over time, as well as the increased need to understand differences in the stress response in females.

Stress, associative learning, and decision-making

Exposure to acute and chronic stress has significant effects on the basic mechanisms of associative learning and memory. Stress can both impair and enhance associative learning depending on type, intensity, and persistence of the stressor, the subject's sex, the context that the stress and behavior is experienced in, and the type of associative learning taking place. In some cases, stress can cause or exacerbate the maladaptive behavior that underlies numerous psychiatric conditions including anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use disorder, and others. Therefore, it is critical to understand how the varied effects of stress, which may normally facilitate adaptive behavior, can also become maladaptive and even harmful. In this review, we highlight several findings of associative learning and decision-making processes that are affected by stress in both human and non-human subjects and how they are related to one another. An emerging theme from this work is that stress biases behavior towards less flexible strategies that may reflect a cautious insensitivity to changing contingencies. We consider how this inflexibility has been observed in different associative learning procedures and suggest that a goal for the field should be to clarify how factors such as sex and previous experience influence this inflexibility.

Stress to inflammation and anhedonia: Mechanistic insights from preclinical and clinical models

Anhedonia, as evidenced by impaired pleasurable response to reward, reduced reward motivation, and/or deficits in reward-related learning, is a common feature of depression. Such deficits in reward processing are also an important clinical target as a risk factor for depression onset. Unfortunately, reward-related deficits remain difficult to treat. To address this gap and inform the development of effective prevention and treatment strategies, it is critical to understand the mechanisms that drive impairments in reward function. Stress-induced inflammation is a plausible mechanism of reward deficits. The purpose of this paper is to review evidence for two components of this psychobiological pathway: 1) the effects of stress on reward function; and 2) the effects of inflammation on reward function. Within these two areas, we draw upon preclinical and clinical models, distinguish between acute and chronic effects of stress and inflammation, and address specific domains of reward dysregulation. By addressing these contextual factors, the review reveals a nuanced literature which might be targeted for additional scientific inquiry to inform the development of precise interventions.

Intermittent social stress produces different short- and long-term effects on effort-based reward-seeking behavior

Previous studies show that intermittent social defeat (ISD) stress increases self-administration of psychostimulants, which suggests that ISD promotes reward-seeking behavior and, ultimately, increases vulnerability to develop drug abuse. The present study investigates whether ISD alters cost/benefit evaluations to promote reward-seeking behavior and whether these alterations are time-dependent. Male rats performed two different tasks that assessed their motivation to seek and consume food rewards. An effort-discounting task in which rats chose between less and more effortful options (i.e., 1 lever-press versus 2, 5, 10 or 20 lever-presses) associated with low- and high-reward (i.e., 1 sugar pellet versus 3 sugar pellets), respectively; and a progressive ratio task in which rats had to increase their effort (more lever presses) to obtain a sugar pellet. ISD consisted of exposing animals to social defeat once every three days for ten days (4 stress episodes). Rats were tested 24-48 h after stress episodes, and 1 week and 6 weeks after the last stress episode. In the effort-discounting task, stressed animals showed a decrease in their preference for high rewards associated with more effort (i.e., 10 and 20 lever-presses). These effects were transient and not maintained one week after stress. In the progressive ratio task, stressed animals showed an increase in the number of lever presses to obtain rewards that emerged six weeks after the last stress episode. These results suggest different short- and long-term effects on the motivation for rewards after ISD and indicate temporal dynamic adaptations in the function of the brain reward system.

Converging vulnerability factors for compulsive food and drug use

Highly palatable foods and substance of abuse have intersecting neurobiological, metabolic and behavioral effects relevant for understanding vulnerability to conditions related to food (e.g., obesity, binge eating disorder) and drug (e.g., substance use disorder) misuse. Here, we review data from animal models, clinical populations and epidemiological evidence in behavioral, genetic, pathophysiologic and therapeutic domains. Results suggest that consumption of highly palatable food and drugs of abuse both impact and conversely are regulated by metabolic hormones and metabolic status. Palatable foods high in fat and/or sugar can elicit adaptation in brain reward and withdrawal circuitry akin to substances of abuse. Intake of or withdrawal from palatable food can impact behavioral sensitivity to drugs of abuse and vice versa. A robust literature suggests common substrates and roles for negative reinforcement, negative affect, negative urgency, and impulse control deficits, with both highly palatable foods and substances of abuse. Candidate genetic risk loci shared by obesity and alcohol use disorders have been identified in molecules classically associated with both metabolic and motivational functions. Finally, certain drugs may have overlapping therapeutic potential to treat obesity, diabetes, binge-related eating disorders and substance use disorders. Taken together, data are consistent with the hypotheses that compulsive food and substance use share overlapping, interacting substrates at neurobiological and metabolic levels and that motivated behavior associated with feeding or substance use might constitute vulnerability factors for one another. This article is part of the special issue on 'Vulnerabilities to Substance Abuse'.

Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptors in the Locus Coeruleus Modulate the Enhancement of Active Coping Behaviors Induced by Chronic Predator Odor Inoculation in Mice

Stress inoculation has been proved to induce active coping behaviors to subsequent stress. However, the specific neural mechanisms underlying this effect remain unclear. In this study, a chronic and mild predator odor exposure model was established to investigate the effect of predator odor stress inoculation on behaviors in novel predator odor exposure, open field test and forced swimming test (FST), and on the expression of CRF receptors in locus coeruleus (LC) and dorsal raphe nuclei (DRN). The results showed that predator odor stress inoculation increased the active coping of mice under the severe stress environment without changing the stress response to a new predator odor. Meanwhile, in LC, the CRFR1 expression was increased by predator odor stress inoculation. These results suggested that predator odor stress inoculation can be used as an effective training method to improve active response to later severe stress and the function of CRFR1 in LC might be a potential underlying biological mechanism.

Motivational Impairment is Accompanied by Corticoaccumbal Dysfunction in the BACHD-Tg5 Rat Model of Huntington's Disease

Neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as avolition, apathy, and anhedonia, precede the onset of debilitating motor symptoms in Huntington's disease (HD), and their development may give insight into early disease progression and treatment. However, the neuronal and circuit mechanisms of premanifest HD pathophysiology are not well-understood. Here, using a transgenic rat model expressing the full-length human mutant HD gene, we find early and profound deficits in reward motivation in the absence of gross motor abnormalities. These deficits are accompanied by significant and progressive dysfunction in corticostriatal processing and communication among brain areas critical for reward-driven behavior. Together, our results define early corticostriatal dysfunction as a possible pathogenic contributor to psychiatric disturbances and may help identify potential pharmacotherapeutic targets for the treatment of HD.

Making Sense of Rodent Models of Anhedonia

A markedly reduced interest or pleasure in activities previously considered pleasurable is a main symptom in mood disorder and psychosis and is often present in other psychiatric disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. This condition can be labeled as "anhedonia," although in its most rigorous connotation the term refers to the lost capacity to feel pleasure that is one aspect of the complex phenomenon of processing and responding to reward. The responses to rewarding stimuli are relatively easy to study in rodents, and the experimental conditions that consistently and persistently impair these responses are used to model anhedonia. To this end, long-term exposure to environmental aversive conditions is primarily used, and the resulting deficits in reward responses are often accompanied by other deficits that are mainly reminiscent of clinical depressive symptoms. The different components of impaired reward responses induced by environmental aversive events can be assessed by different tests or protocols that require different degrees of time allocation, technical resources, and equipment. Rodent models of anhedonia are valuable tools in the study of the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning impaired behavioral responses and in the screening and characterization of drugs that may reverse these behavioral deficits. In particular, the antianhedonic or promotivational effects are relevant features in the spectrum of activities of drugs used in mood disorders or psychosis. Thus, more than the model, it is the choice of tests that is crucial since it influences which facets of anhedonia will be detected and should be tuned to the purpose of the study.

Persistent inflammatory pain alters sexually-motivated behavior in male rats

Urine from pro-œstrus female rodents evokes increased levels of sexually-motivated behaviors in males, including sniffing and scent marking of the urine spot as well as activation of brain reward regions. Stressors such as social defeat can adversely impact urine scent marking behavior in male rodents, an effect that can be mitigated with anti-depressant drugs. Persistent pain is also known to be a potent stressor, producing elevated levels of plasma corticosterone as well as reduced sucrose preference and reduced social interaction. However, the effect of persistent pain on sexually-motivated behavior is unknown. Here, we compared urine scent marking behavior in male rats for up to 3 weeks following intra-articular injection of Complete Freund’s Adjuvant (CFA) or sham injection. CFA-injected rats exhibited profound and ongoing deficits in static weight bearing capacity. CFA-induced persistent inflammatory pain increased plasma corticosterone levels and reduced urine scent marking behavior in male rats. Moreover, while the vast majority of injured rats showed decreased urine scent marking preference for the pro-œstrus female urine spot, male rats with higher baseline scent marking preference also exhibited higher post-injury scent marking preference, more sniffing behavior and lower levels of plasma corticosterone, compared to those with lower baseline scent marking preference. Overall, scent marking behavior may be an ethologically relevant behavioral predictor of persistent pain-induced stress in rats, representing a novel translational approach to understanding chronic pain comorbidities.

Ethanol Reinforcement Elicits Novel Response Inhibition Behavior in a Rat Model of Ethanol Dependence

Lower impulse control is a known risk factor for drug abuse vulnerability. Chronic experience with illicit drugs is suggested to enhance impulsivity and thereby perpetuate addiction. However, the nature of this relationship (directionality, causality) with regard to alcohol use disorder is unclear. The present study tested the hypothesis that higher impulsivity is observed during chronic intermittent ethanol vapor inhalation (CIE; a model of ethanol dependence) and subsequent abstinence from CIE in adult Wistar rats. Impulsivity was tested using a differential reinforcement of low rates 15 s (DRL15) schedule using either nondrug reward (palatable modified sucrose pellets) or sweetened ethanol. A decrease in the efficiency of earning reinforcers (expressed as % reinforcers/responses) is indicative of a decrease in response inhibition or an increase in impulsivity. The efficiency of reinforcement and amount of reinforcers earned were unaltered in CIE and control animals when the reinforcer was sucrose. When the reinforcer was sweetened ethanol, the efficiency of reinforcement increased in CIE rats compared with controls only during protracted abstinence. Responding for sweetened ethanol under a progressive-ratio schedule was more rapid in CIE rats during protracted abstinence. Contrary to the initial hypothesis, impulsivity did not increase in rats with a history of CIE; instead, it decreased when ethanol was used as the reinforcer. Furthermore, although the efficiency of ethanol reinforcement did not differ between CIE and control animals during CIE, CIE rats escalated the amount of sweetened ethanol consumed, suggesting that behavioral adaptations that are induced by CIE in rats that are tested under a DRL15 schedule appear to be targeted toward the maximization of ethanol intake and thus may contribute to escalation and relapse.