Redundancy principle and the role of extreme statistics in molecular and cellular biology

Extreme Diffusion Measures Statistical Fluctuations of the Environment

We consider many-particle diffusion in one spatial dimension modeled as "random walks in a random environment." A shared short-range space-time random environment determines the jump distributions that drive the motion of the particles. We determine universal power laws for the environment's contribution to the variance of the extreme first passage time and extreme location. We show that the prefactors rely upon a single extreme diffusion coefficient that is equal to the ensemble variance of the local drift imposed on particles by the random environment. This coefficient should be contrasted with the Einstein diffusion coefficient, which determines the prefactor in the power law describing the variance of a single diffusing particle and is equal to the jump variance in the ensemble averaged random environment. Thus a measurement of the behavior of extremes in many-particle diffusion yields an otherwise difficult to measure statistical property of the fluctuations of the generally hidden environment in which that diffusion occurs. We verify our theory and the universal behavior numerically over many random walk in a random environment models and system sizes.

Toward a Robust Definition of Sport Sex

Elite individual sports in which success depends on power, speed, or endurance are conventionally divided into male and female events using traditional binary definitions of sex. Male puberty creates durable physical advantages due to the 20- to 30-fold increase in circulating testosterone producing a sustained uplift in men's muscle, bone, hemoglobin, and cardiorespiratory function resulting from male puberty and sustained during men's lives. These male physical advantages provide strong justification for a separate protected category of female events allowing women to achieve the fame and fortune from success they would be denied if competing against men. Recent wider social acceptance of transgender individuals, together with the less recognized involvement of intersex individuals, challenge and threaten to defeat the sex classifications for elite individual female events. This can create unfair advantages if seeking inclusion into elite female events of unmodified male-bodied athletes with female gender identity who have gained the physical advantages of male puberty. Based on reproductive physiology, this paper proposes a working definition of sport sex based primarily on an individual's experience of male puberty and can be applied to transgender and various XY intersex conditions. Consistent with the multidimensionality of biological sex (chromosomal, genetic, hormonal, anatomical sex), this definition may be viewed as a multistrand cable whose overall strength survives when any single strand weakens or fails, rather than as a unidimensional chain whose strength is only as good as its weakest link.

Dynamic redundancy as a mechanism to optimize collective random searches

We explore the case of a group of random walkers looking for a target randomly located in space, such that the number of walkers is not constant but new ones can join the search, or those that are active can abandon it, with constant rates r_{b} and r_{d}, respectively. Exact analytical solutions are provided both for the fastest-first-passage time and for the collective time cost required to reach the target, for the exemplifying case of Brownian walkers with r_{d}=0. We prove that even for such a simple situation there exists an optimal rate r_{b} at which walkers should join the search to minimize the collective search costs. We discuss how these results open a new line to understand the optimal regulation in searches conducted through multiparticle random walks, e.g., in chemical or biological processes.

First-passage time for many-particle diffusion in space-time random environments

The first-passage time for a single diffusing particle has been studied extensively, but the first-passage time of a system of many diffusing particles, as is often the case in physical systems, has received little attention until recently. We consider two models for many-particle diffusion-one treats each particle as independent simple random walkers while the other treats them as coupled to a common space-time random forcing field that biases particles nearby in space and time in similar ways. The first-passage time of a single diffusing particle under both models shows the same statistics and scaling behavior. However, for many-particle diffusions, the first-passage time among all particles (the extreme first-passage time) is very different between the two models, effected in the latter case by the randomness of the common forcing field. We develop an asymptotic (in the number of particles and location where first passage is being probed) theoretical framework to separate the impact of the random environment with that of the sampling trajectories within it. We identify a power law describing the impact of the environment on the variance of the extreme first-passage time. Through numerical simulations, we verify that the predictions from this asymptotic theory hold even for systems with widely varying numbers of particles, all the way down to 100 particles. This shows that measurements of the extreme first-passage time for many-particle diffusions provide an indirect measurement of the underlying environment in which the diffusion is occurring.

Being Heterogeneous Is Advantageous: Extreme Brownian Non-Gaussian Searches

Redundancy in biology may be explained by the need to optimize extreme searching processes, where one or few among many particles are requested to reach the target like in human fertilization. We show that non-Gaussian rare fluctuations in Brownian diffusion dominates such searches, introducing drastic corrections to the known Gaussian behavior. Our demonstration entails different physical systems and pinpoints the relevance of diversity within redundancy to boost fast targeting. We sketch an experimental context to test our results: polydisperse systems.

Controlling Uncertainty of Empirical First-Passage Times in the Small-Sample Regime

We derive general bounds on the probability that the empirical first-passage time τ[over ¯]_{n}≡∑_{i=1}^{n}τ_{i}/n of a reversible ergodic Markov process inferred from a sample of n independent realizations deviates from the true mean first-passage time by more than any given amount in either direction. We construct nonasymptotic confidence intervals that hold in the elusive small-sample regime and thus fill the gap between asymptotic methods and the Bayesian approach that is known to be sensitive to prior belief and tends to underestimate uncertainty in the small-sample setting. We prove sharp bounds on extreme first-passage times that control uncertainty even in cases where the mean alone does not sufficiently characterize the statistics. Our concentration-of-measure-based results allow for model-free error control and reliable error estimation in kinetic inference, and are thus important for the analysis of experimental and simulation data in the presence of limited sampling.

Modulation of antigen discrimination by duration of immune contacts in a kinetic proofreading model of T cell activation with extreme statistics

T cells form transient cell-to-cell contacts with antigen presenting cells (APCs) to facilitate surface interrogation by membrane bound T cell receptors (TCRs). Upon recognition of molecular signatures (antigen) of pathogen, T cells may initiate an adaptive immune response. The duration of the T cell/APC contact is observed to vary widely, yet it is unclear what constructive role, if any, such variations might play in immune signaling. Modeling efforts describing antigen discrimination often focus on steady-state approximations and do not account for the transient nature of cellular contacts. Within the framework of a kinetic proofreading (KP) mechanism, we develop a stochastic First Receptor Activation Model (FRAM) describing the likelihood that a productive immune signal is produced before the expiry of the contact. Through the use of extreme statistics, we characterize the probability that the first TCR triggering is induced by a rare agonist antigen and not by that of an abundant self-antigen. We show that defining positive immune outcomes as resilience to extreme statistics and sensitivity to rare events mitigates classic tradeoffs associated with KP. By choosing a sufficient number of KP steps, our model is able to yield single agonist sensitivity whilst remaining non-reactive to large populations of self antigen, even when self and agonist antigen are similar in dissociation rate to the TCR but differ largely in expression. Additionally, our model achieves high levels of accuracy even when agonist positive APCs encounters are rare. Finally, we discuss potential biological costs associated with high classification accuracy, particularly in challenging T cell environments.

Slowest first passage times, redundancy, and menopause timing

Biological events are often initiated when a random "searcher" finds a "target," which is called a first passage time (FPT). In some biological systems involving multiple searchers, an important timescale is the time it takes the slowest searcher(s) to find a target. For example, of the hundreds of thousands of primordial follicles in a woman's ovarian reserve, it is the slowest to leave that trigger the onset of menopause. Such slowest FPTs may also contribute to the reliability of cell signaling pathways and influence the ability of a cell to locate an external stimulus. In this paper, we use extreme value theory and asymptotic analysis to obtain rigorous approximations to the full probability distribution and moments of slowest FPTs. Though the results are proven in the limit of many searchers, numerical simulations reveal that the approximations are accurate for any number of searchers in typical scenarios of interest. We apply these general mathematical results to models of ovarian aging and menopause timing, which reveals the role of slowest FPTs for understanding redundancy in biological systems. We also apply the theory to several popular models of stochastic search, including search by diffusive, subdiffusive, and mortal searchers.

Population heterogeneity in the fractional master equation, ensemble self-reinforcement, and strong memory effects

We formulate a fractional master equation in continuous time with random transition probabilities across the population of random walkers such that the effective underlying random walk exhibits ensemble self-reinforcement. The population heterogeneity generates a random walk with conditional transition probabilities that increase with the number of steps taken previously (self-reinforcement). Through this, we establish the connection between random walks with a heterogeneous ensemble and those with strong memory where the transition probability depends on the entire history of steps. We find the ensemble-averaged solution of the fractional master equation through subordination involving the fractional Poisson process counting the number of steps at a given time and the underlying discrete random walk with self-reinforcement. We also find the exact solution for the variance which exhibits superdiffusion even as the fractional exponent tends to 1.

Keeping the Spirit in the Bottle: On Pathological Reduction of Information in Totalitarianism

This article begins with disputing the teleologically charged notion of unstoppable information growth, pointing at the alternation of informational contraction and expansion in open dynamic systems. Narrowing the focus, it turns to the 20th century totalitarian systems as particularly paradoxical informational environments: Being less capable of processing information than their democratic counterparts and therefore more vulnerable to overloads, they are particularly prone to suppressing informational transmission in some areas, codes and media. Dilution and conflation are singled out as the most common ways of lessening the informational value of communication in totalitarian societies. Whereas the first greatly increases the ratios of signs to messages and messages to interactions, causing redundancy and semantic inflation, the second rolls back preexisting functional differentiations (person vs. social role, sender vs. message, message vs. information etc.) within societies and their communicative system. It is argued that both attempts at semantic impoverishment of public communication in totalitarianism lead to the pathological states, failing to reduce the overall amount of information within the systems in question and precipitating the very informational explosions they were designed to prevent.

How large the number of redundant copies should be to make a rare event probable

The redundancy principle provides a framework to study how rare events are made possible with probability 1 in accelerated time, by making many copies of similar random searchers. However, what is a large n? To estimate large n with respect to the geometrical properties of a domain and the dynamics, we present here a criterion based on splitting probabilities between a small fraction of the exploration space associated with an activation process and other absorbing regions where trajectories can be terminated. We obtain explicit computations especially when there is a killing region located inside the domain that we compare with stochastic simulations. We also present examples of extreme trajectories with killing in dimension 2. For a large n, the optimal trajectories avoid penetrating inside the killing region. Finally, we discuss some applications to cell biology.

Optimality of intercellular signaling: Direct transport versus diffusion

Intercellular signaling has an important role in organism development, but not all communication occurs using the same mechanism. Here, we analyze the energy efficiency of intercellular signaling by two canonical mechanisms: Diffusion of signaling molecules and direct transport mediated by signaling cellular protrusions. We show that efficient contact formation for direct transport can be established by an optimal rate of projecting protrusions, which depends on the availability of information about the location of the target cell. The optimal projection rate also depends on how signaling molecules are transported along the protrusion, in particular the ratio of the energy cost for contact formation and molecule synthesis. Also, we compare the efficiency of the two signaling mechanisms, under various model parameters. We find that direct transport is favored over diffusion when transporting a large amount of signaling molecules. There is a critical number of signaling molecules at which the efficiencies of the two mechanisms are the same. The critical number is small when the distance between cells is far, which helps explain why protrusion-based mechanisms are observed in long-range cellular communications.

Discrete Sampling of Extreme Events Modifies Their Statistics

Extreme value (EV) statistics of correlated systems are widely investigated in many fields, spanning the spectrum from weather forecasting to earthquake prediction. Does the unavoidable discrete sampling of a continuous correlated stochastic process change its EV distribution? We explore this question for correlated random variables modeled via Langevin dynamics for a particle in a potential field. For potentials growing at infinity faster than linearly and for long measurement times, we find that the EV distribution of the discretely sampled process diverges from that of the full continuous dataset and converges to that of independent and identically distributed random variables drawn from the process's equilibrium measure. However, for processes with sublinear potentials, the long-time limit is the EV statistics of the continuously sampled data. We treat processes whose equilibrium measures belong to the three EV attractors: Gumbel, Fréchet, and Weibull. Our Letter shows that the EV statistics can be extremely sensitive to the sampling rate of the data.

Geometrical optics of large deviations of fractional Brownian motion

It has been shown recently that the optimal fluctuation method-essentially geometrical optics-provides a valuable insight into large deviations of Brownian motion. Here we extend the geometrical optics formalism to two-sided, -∞<t<∞, fractional Brownian motion (fBm) on the line, which is "pushed" to a large deviation regime by imposed constraints. We test the formalism on three examples where exact solutions are available: the two- and three-point probability distributions of the fBm and the distribution of the area under the fBm on a specified time interval. Then we apply the formalism to several previously unsolved problems by evaluating large-deviation tails of the following distributions: (i) of the first-passage time, (ii) of the maximum of, and (iii) of the area under, fractional Brownian bridge and fractional Brownian excursion, and (iv) of the first-passage area distribution of the fBm. An intrinsic part of a geometrical optics calculation is determination of the optimal path-the most likely realization of the process which dominates the probability distribution of the conditioned process. Due to the non-Markovian nature of the fBm, the optimal paths of a fBm, subject to constraints on a finite interval 0<t≤T, involve both the past -∞<t<0 and the future T<t<∞.

Random Search in Fluid Flow Aided by Chemotaxis

In this paper, we consider the dynamics of a 2D target-searching agent performing Brownian motion under the influence of fluid shear flow and chemical attraction. The analysis is motivated by numerous situations in biology where these effects are present, such as broadcast spawning of marine animals and other reproduction processes or workings of the immune systems. We rigorously characterize the limit of the expected hit time in the large flow amplitude limit as corresponding to the effective one-dimensional problem. We also perform numerical computations to characterize the finer properties of the expected duration of the search. The numerical experiments show many interesting features of the process and in particular existence of the optimal value of the shear flow that minimizes the expected target hit time and outperforms the large flow limit.

Zebrafish airinemes optimize their shape between ballistic and diffusive search

In addition to diffusive signals, cells in tissue also communicate via long, thin cellular protrusions, such as airinemes in zebrafish. Before establishing communication, cellular protrusions must find their target cell. Here we demonstrate that the shapes of airinemes in zebrafish are consistent with a finite persistent random walk model. The probability of contacting the target cell is maximized for a balance between ballistic search (straight) and diffusive search (highly curved, random). We find that the curvature of airinemes in zebrafish, extracted from live cell microscopy, is approximately the same value as the optimum in the simple persistent random walk model. We also explore the ability of the target cell to infer direction of the airineme's source, finding that there is a theoretical trade-off between search optimality and directional information. This provides a framework to characterize the shape, and performance objectives, of non-canonical cellular protrusions in general.

Reversible target-binding kinetics of multiple impatient particles

Certain biochemical reactions can only be triggered after binding a sufficient number of particles to a specific target region such as an enzyme or a protein sensor. We investigate the distribution of the reaction time, i.e., the first instance when all independently diffusing particles are bound to the target. When each particle binds irreversibly, this is equivalent to the first-passage time of the slowest (last) particle. In turn, reversible binding to the target renders the problem much more challenging and drastically changes the distribution of the reaction time. We derive the exact solution of this problem and investigate the short-time and long-time asymptotic behaviors of the reaction time probability density. We also analyze how the mean reaction time depends on the unbinding rate and the number of particles. Our exact and asymptotic solutions are compared to Monte Carlo simulations.

Nanoscale molecular architecture controls calcium diffusion and ER replenishment in dendritic spines

Dendritic spines are critical components of neuronal synapses as they receive and transform synaptic inputs into a succession of calcium-regulated biochemical events. The spine apparatus (SA), an extension of smooth endoplasmic reticulum, regulates slow and fast calcium dynamics in spines. Calcium release events deplete SA calcium ion reservoir rapidly, yet the next cycle of signaling requires its replenishment. How spines achieve this replenishment without triggering calcium release remains unclear. Using computational modeling, calcium and STED superresolution imaging, we show that the SA replenishment involves the store-operated calcium entry pathway during spontaneous calcium transients. We identified two main conditions for SA replenishment without depletion: a small amplitude and a slow timescale for calcium influx, and a close proximity between SA and plasma membranes. Thereby, spine’s nanoscale organization separates SA replenishment from depletion. We further conclude that spine’s receptor organization also determines the calcium dynamics during the induction of long-term synaptic changes.

Diffusive search and trajectories on tubular networks: a propagator approach

Several organelles in eukaryotic cells, including mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, form interconnected tubule networks extending throughout the cell. These tubular networks host many biochemical pathways that rely on proteins diffusively searching through the network to encounter binding partners or localized target regions. Predicting the behavior of such pathways requires a quantitative understanding of how confinement to a reticulated structure modulates reaction kinetics. In this work, we develop both exact analytical methods to compute mean first passage times and efficient kinetic Monte Carlo algorithms to simulate trajectories of particles diffusing in a tubular network. Our approach leverages exact propagator functions for the distribution of transition times between network nodes and allows large simulation time steps determined by the network structure. The methodology is applied to both synthetic planar networks and organelle network structures, demonstrating key general features such as the heterogeneity of search times in different network regions and the functional advantage of broadly distributing target sites throughout the network. The proposed algorithms pave the way for future exploration of the interrelationship between tubular network structure and biomolecular reaction kinetics.

Extreme first-passage times for random walks on networks

Many biological, social, and communication systems can be modeled by "searchers" moving through a complex network. For example, intracellular cargo is transported on tubular networks, news and rumors spread through online social networks, and the rapid global spread of infectious diseases occurs through passengers traveling on the airport network. To understand the timescale of search (or "transport" or "spread"), one commonly studies the first-passage time (FPT) of a single searcher (or "transporter" or "spreader") to a target. However, in many scenarios the relevant timescale is not the FPT of a single searcher to a target, but rather the FPT of the fastest searcher to a target out of many searchers. For example, many processes in cell biology are triggered by the first molecule to find a target out of many, and the time it takes an infectious disease to reach a particular city depends on the first infected traveler to arrive out of potentially many infected travelers. Such fastest FPTs are called extreme FPTs. In this paper, we study extreme FPTs for a general class of continuous-time random walks on networks (which includes continuous-time Markov chains). In the limit of many searchers, we find explicit formulas for the probability distribution and all the moments of the kth fastest FPT for any fixed k≥1. These rigorous formulas depend only on network parameters along a certain geodesic path(s) from the starting location to the target since the fastest searchers take a direct route to the target. Hence, the extreme FPTs are independent of the details of the network outside this geodesic(s) and can be drastically faster and less variable than conventional FPTs of single searchers. Furthermore, our results allow one to estimate if a particular system is in a regime characterized by fast extreme FPTs. We also prove similar results for mortal searchers on a network that are conditioned to find the target before a fast inactivation time. We illustrate our results with numerical simulations and uncover potential pitfalls of modeling diffusive or subdiffusive processes involving extreme statistics. In particular, we find that the many searcher limit does not commute with the diffusion limit for random walks, and thus care must be taken when choosing spatially continuous versus spatially discrete diffusion models.

Heterogeneity Improves Speed and Accuracy in Social Networks

How does temporally structured private and social information shape collective decisions? To address this question we consider a network of rational agents who independently accumulate private evidence that triggers a decision upon reaching a threshold. When seen by the whole network, the first agent's choice initiates a wave of new decisions; later decisions have less impact. In heterogeneous networks, first decisions are made quickly by impulsive individuals who need little evidence to make a choice but, even when wrong, can reveal the correct options to nearly everyone else. We conclude that groups comprised of diverse individuals can make more efficient decisions than homogenous ones.

Extreme value theory for constrained physical systems

We investigate extreme value theory for physical systems with a global conservation law which describes renewal processes, mass transport models, and long-range interacting spin models. As shown previously, a special feature is that the distribution of the extreme value exhibits a nonanalytical point in the middle of the support. We expose exact relationships between constrained extreme value theory and well-known quantities of the underlying stochastic dynamics, all valid beyond the midpoint in general, i.e., even far from the thermodynamic limit. For example, for renewal processes the distribution of the maximum time between two renewal events is exactly related to the mean number of these events. In the thermodynamic limit, we show how our theory is suitable to describe typical and rare events which deviate from classical extreme value theory. For example, for the renewal process we unravel dual scaling of the extreme value distribution, pointing out two types of limiting laws: a normalizable scaling function for the typical statistics and a non-normalized state describing the rare events.

Active flow network generates molecular transport by packets: case of the endoplasmic reticulum

Biological networks are characterized by their connectivity and topology but also by their ability to transport materials. In the case of random transportation, the efficacy is measured by the time it takes to travel between two nodes of the network. We study here the consequences of a unidirectional transport mechanism occurring in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) network, a structure present in the cell cytoplasm. This unidirectional transport mechanism is an active-waiting transportation, where molecules have to wait a random time before being transported from one node to the next one. We develop here a general theory of transport in an active network and find an unusual network transportation, where molecules group together in redundant packets instead of being disperse. Finally, the mean time to travel between two nodes of the ER is of the order of 20 min, but is reduced to 30 s when we consider the fastest particles because it uses optimal paths. To conclude, the present theory shows that unidirectional transport is an efficient and robust mechanism for fast molecular redistribution inside the ER.

Diffusion toward non-overlapping partially reactive spherical traps: Fresh insights onto classic problems

Several classic problems for particles diffusing outside an arbitrary configuration of non-overlapping partially reactive spherical traps in three dimensions are revisited. For this purpose, we describe the generalized method of separation of variables for solving boundary value problems of the associated modified Helmholtz equation. In particular, we derive a semi-analytical solution for the Green function that is the key ingredient to determine various diffusion-reaction characteristics such as the survival probability, the first-passage time distribution, and the reaction rate. We also present modifications of the method to determine numerically or asymptotically the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of the Laplace operator and the Dirichlet-to-Neumann operator in such perforated domains. Some potential applications in chemical physics and biophysics are discussed, including diffusion-controlled reactions for mortal particles.

Universal formula for extreme first passage statistics of diffusion

The timescales of many physical, chemical, and biological processes are determined by first passage times (FPTs) of diffusion. The overwhelming majority of FPT research studies the time it takes a single diffusive searcher to find a target. However, the more relevant quantity in many systems is the time it takes the fastest searcher to find a target from a large group of searchers. This fastest FPT depends on extremely rare events and has a drastically faster timescale than the FPT of a given single searcher. In this work, we prove a simple explicit formula for every moment of the fastest FPT. The formula is remarkably universal, as it holds for d-dimensional diffusion processes (i) with general space-dependent diffusivities and force fields, (ii) on Riemannian manifolds, (iii) in the presence of reflecting obstacles, and (iv) with partially absorbing targets. Our results rigorously confirm, generalize, correct, and unify various conjectures and heuristics about the fastest FPT.

Fast calcium transients in dendritic spines driven by extreme statistics

Fast calcium transients (<10 ms) remain difficult to analyse in cellular microdomains, yet they can modulate key cellular events such as trafficking, local ATP production by endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria complex (ER-mitochondria complex), or spontaneous activity in astrocytes. In dendritic spines receiving synaptic inputs, we show here that in the presence of a spine apparatus (SA), which is an extension of the smooth ER, a calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) is triggered at the base of the spine by the fastest calcium ions arriving at a Ryanodyne receptor (RyR). The mechanism relies on the asymmetric distributions of RyRs and sarco/ER calcium-ATPase (SERCA) pumps that we predict using a computational model and further confirm experimentally in culture and slice hippocampal neurons. The present mechanism for which the statistics of the fastest particles arriving at a small target, followed by an amplification, is likely to be generic in molecular transduction across cellular microcompartments, such as thin neuronal processes, astrocytes, endfeets, or protrusions.