OnabotulinumtoxinA for the Treatment of Poststroke Distal Lower Limb Spasticity: A Randomized Trial

Botulinum toxin in the rehabilitation of painful syndromes: multiperspective literature analysis, lexical analysis and systematic review of randomized controlled trials

Pain represents a common symptom of several diseases and is often associated with a reduction in rehabilitation outcomes and recovery. The effectiveness of pain alleviation by botulinum toxin has been recently demonstrated. We searched in PubMed the papers about this topic published in the last ten years, and we selected clinical trials, guidelines, meta-analyses, reviews, and systematic reviews. We used different approaches: multiperspective presentation, lexical evaluation, and systematic review. The systematic review was only performed for the randomized controlled trials. We predominantly found reviews and trials about the rehabilitation of stroke/brain injury and epicondylitis. The most common outcome measures were pain, function, and spasticity. Among the common words, pain was the most frequent and the terms were grouped into different families, especially concerning the outcomes. Rehabilitation showed a relatively low frequency. Finally, the systematic review showed moderate-low levels of bias which confirms the effectiveness of botulinum toxin for pain treatment. The current literature about botulinum toxin is wide and globally diffuse but with some limitations in study strategies and clearness in the formal presentation. The evidence justifies the use of botulinum toxin in treating pain in different diseases.

Statement of the Rehabilitation Medicine Society of Australia and New Zealand for the therapeutic use of botulinum toxin A in spasticity management

The Rehabilitation Medicine Society of Australia and New Zealand advocates the safe, effective and evidence-based use of botulinum toxin type A for spasticity management. The process requires appropriate training, alongside considerable knowledge and skills, to maximise efficacy. The processes before and after injection contribute to effectiveness. The gold standard of managing spasticity is for assessment by a multidisciplinary specialist team, deriving patient-centric goals, and designing an injection protocol to match these goals. The patient and/or carers are considered part of the decision-making team. Postinjection therapy and measurement of goal achievement are highly recommended as part of the wider holistic approach to management. The Society believes treatment failures can be minimised by following clear clinical guidelines.

Mechanism and clinical use of botulinum neurotoxin in head and facial region

PURPOSE

Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is a biological toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum. BoNT is a potent toxin extensively used in therapeutic interventions. This review provides an updated overview of the mechanisms of action and clinical applications of BoNT in head and facial region.

STUDY SELECTION

MEDLINE/PubMed searches were conducted using the terms "botulinum neurotoxin" and "dentistry" along with a combination of other related terms. In addition, studies were manually selected from reference lists of the selected articles.

RESULTS

The Food and Drug Administration in the United States initially approved BoNT to treat strabismus, blepharospasm, and hemifacial spasms. The use of BoNT in dermatology and cosmetics has been widely established and has created a revolution in these fields. Over the years, its applications in various medical specialties have expanded widely. Owing to its safety, efficacy, and long duration of action, it is well-accepted by patients. BoNT/A and BoNT/B are widely used in clinical practice. Several off-label uses of BoNT in the dental fraternity have yielded promising results. We have elaborated on the speculated mechanism of action, dosage, effective sites of injection, and adverse effects of each therapeutic application. The various clinical indications for BoNT include bruxism, myofascial pain, temporomandibular joint dislocation, hemifacial pain, orofacial dystonia, facial paralysis, chronic migraine, and trigeminal neuralgia.

CONCLUSIONS

BoNT is a safe treatment that can be used effectively, provided that the clinician has adequate knowledge regarding the mechanism, injection techniques, and local and systemic side effects and that it is administered cautiously and purposefully.

Treatment of adult spasticity with Botox (onabotulinumtoxinA): Development, insights, and impact

Upper and lower limb spasticity (ULS, LLS) often occur following a stroke or in patients with other neurological disorders, leading to difficulties in mobility and daily living and decreased quality of life. Prior to the use of onabotulinumtoxinA, antispastic medications had limited efficacy and often caused sedation. Phenol injections were difficult for physicians to perform, painful, and led to tissue destruction. The success of onabotulinumtoxinA in treating cervical dystonia led to its use in spasticity. However, many challenges characterized the development of onabotulinumtoxinA for adult spasticity. The wide variability in the presentation of spasticity among patients rendered it difficult to determine which muscles to inject and how to measure improvement. Another challenge was the initial refusal of the Food and Drug Administration to accept the Ashworth Scale as a primary endpoint. Additional scales were designed to incorporate a goal-oriented, patient-centered approach that also accounted for the variability of spasticity presentations. Several randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of post-stroke spasticity of the elbow, wrist, and/or fingers showed significantly greater improvements in the modified Ashworth Scale and patient treatment goals and led to the approval of onabotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of ULS in adult patients. Lessons learned from the successful ULS trials were applied to design an LLS trial that led to approval for the latter indication. Additional observational trials mimicking real-world treatment have shown continued effectiveness and patient satisfaction. The use of onabotulinumtoxinA for spasticity has ushered in a more patient-centered treatment approach that has vastly improved patients' quality of life.

Video enhanced visual analysis of hemiparetic gait muscle selection: A pilot study

This paper summarizes the use of video enhanced visual analysis (VEVA) as a muscle selection assistance method for abnormal foot postures in adults with upper motor neuron syndrome (UMNS) treated with botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT-A) in a real-world setting. This pilot study used a prospective treatment study design with persons in an outpatient, rehabilitation hospital. Participants had acquired brain injury (ABI) of >6-month duration who had a spastic ankle foot deformity amenable to treatment with botulinum toxin A and able to independently ambulate a minimum of 10 m. Participants were evaluated before abobotulinumtoxinA injection (500 U-1500 U) to the identified lower limb muscles and four to five weeks post injection. Main Outcome Measures: Temporal spatial data (self-selected and maximal walking velocities (SSWV/MWV); step length and stance time); Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS); Tardieu Scale (TS) and ankle Passive Range of Motion (PROM) change from baseline to follow-up (f/u). Data is presented on ten of the eleven consecutive participants enrolled in the study. One participant withdrew due to study unrelated opposite ankle pain before reassessment. Mean SSWV increased post treatment by 21% in the barefoot condition and 8% when walking with shoes. For the MWV condition, there was a 15% mean increase post treatment in the barefoot condition and 10% when walking with shoes. Participants showed improved symmetry in step length and stance time in both post-treatment walking conditions. Ankle MAS and TS improved with knee flexed or extended. Ankle PROM increased post treatment with knee flexed by 8° and knee extended by 11.7°. VEVA in addition to clinical evaluation appears to facilitate muscle identification and selection of ankle deformities for treatment with BoNT-A. Our findings show marked improvement in ankle MAS, TS and PROM as indicators of pharmacological activity and increase in SSWV as a marker of functional improvement.

Evaluation of Selective Tibial Neurotomy for the Spastic Foot Treatment Using a Personal Goal-Centered Approach: A 1-Year Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Selective tibial neurotomy (STN) has already demonstrated its effectiveness to reduce foot deformities and spasticity, but assessment according to a goal-centered approach is missing.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effectiveness of STN associated with a postoperative rehabilitation program for the treatment of the spastic foot, according to a goal-centered approach.

METHODS

Interventional study (before-after STN and rehabilitation program) with observational design including consecutive adult patients with spastic foot, who received STN followed by a rehabilitation program, was performed. The primary outcome measure was the achievement of individual goals at the 1-year follow-up using the Goal Attainment Scaling methodology (with T-score). The secondary outcomes measures were the Modified Ashworth Scale and the modified Rankin Score.

RESULTS

A total of 104 patients were included. At the 1-year follow-up, 228/252 (90.5%) goals were achieved: 62/252 (24.6%) were achieved as initially expected, 86/252 (34.1%) were achieved better than initially expected, and 80 (31.7%) were achieved much better than initially expected. The mean T-score was significantly increased at the 1-year follow-up (61.5 ± 10.5) compared with the preoperative period (38.1 ± 2.9, P < .00001), and 95/104 (91.3%) patients had a T-score ≥50, meaning that these patients have achieved their goals. At follow-up, spastic deformities were all significantly decreased ( P < .0001), the Modified Ashworth Scale was significantly lower for each muscle targeted ( P < .0001), and the modified Rankin Score was significantly decreased ( P < .0001) allowing the patient population to improve from a moderate to a slight disability status.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that STN, associated with a postoperative rehabilitation program, successfully achieve personal goals in patients with spastic foot.

Long-Term Spasticity Management in Post-Stroke Patients: Issues and Possible Actions-A Systematic Review with an Italian Expert Opinion

Spasticity is a well-known motor dysfunction occurring after a stroke. A group of Italian physicians' experts in treating post-stroke spasticity (PSS) reviewed the current scientific evidence concerning the state-of-the-art clinical management of PSS management and the appropriate use of botulinum toxin, aiming to identify issues, possible actions, and effective management of the patient affected by spasticity. The participants were clinicians specifically selected to cover the range of multidisciplinary clinical and research expertise needed to diagnose and manage PSS. When evidence was not available, the panel discussed and agreed on the best way to manage and treat PSS. To address the barriers identified, the panel provides a series of consensus recommendations. This systematic review provides a focused guide in the evaluation and management of patients with PSS and its complications. The recommendations reached by this panel of experts should be used by less-experienced doctors in real life and should be used as a guide on how to best use botulinum toxin injection in treating spasticity after a stroke.

Botulinum toxin for motor disorders

Botulinum neurotoxins are a group of biological toxins produced by the gram-negative bacteria Clostridium botulinum. After intramuscular injection, they produce dose-related muscle relaxation, which has proven useful in the treatment of a large number of motor and movement disorders. In this chapter, we discuss the utility of botulinum toxin treatment in three major and common medical conditions related to the dysfunction of the motor system, namely dystonia, tremor, and spasticity. A summary of the existing literature is provided along with different techniques of injection including those recommended by the authors.

Goal attainment scaling as an outcome measure for randomised controlled trials: a scoping review

OBJECTIVES

(1) Identify the healthcare settings in which goal attainment scaling (GAS) has been used as an outcome measure in randomised controlled trials. (2) Describe how GAS has been implemented by researchers in those trials.

DESIGN

Scoping review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews approach.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, CENTRAL, EMBASE and PsycINFO were searched through 28 February 2022.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

English-language publications reporting on research where adults in healthcare settings were recruited to a randomised controlled trial where GAS was an outcome measure.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Two independent reviewers completed data extraction. Data collected underwent descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

Of 1,838 articles screened, 38 studies were included. These studies were most frequently conducted in rehabilitation (58%) and geriatric medicine (24%) disciplines/populations. Sample sizes ranged from 8 to 468, with a median of 51 participants (IQR: 30-96). A number of studies did not report on implementation aspects such as the personnel involved (26%), the training provided (79%) and the calibration and review mechanisms (87%). Not all trials used the same scale, with 24% varying from the traditional five-point scale. Outcome attainment was scored in various manners (self-report: 21%; observed: 26%; both self-report and observed: 8%; and not reported: 45%), and the calculation of GAS scores differed between trials (raw score: 21%; T score: 47%; other: 21%; and not reported: 66%).

CONCLUSIONS

GAS has been used as an outcome measure across a wide range of disciplines and trial settings. However, there are inadequacies and inconsistencies in how it has been applied and implemented. Developing a cross-disciplinary practical guide to support a degree of standardisation in its implementation may be beneficial in increasing the reliability and comparability of trial results.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42021237541.

Efficacy and Safety of IncobotulinumtoxinA in the Treatment of Lower Limb Spasticity in Japanese Subjects

Objective

To confirm the efficacy and safety of incobotulinumtoxinA (Xeomin®, Merz Pharmaceuticals GmbH; total dose 400 U) in Japanese subjects with lower limb (LL) poststroke spasticity using the Modified Ashworth Scale spasticity score for the plantar flexors (MAS-PF).

Methods

This phase III study (Japic clinical study database No. CTI-153030, 7 October 2015) included a double-blind, 12-week main period (MP) in which 208 subjects were randomized to receive one injection cycle of incobotulinumtoxinA 400 U (n = 104) or placebo (n = 104) in the pes equinus muscles, and an open-label extension (OLEX) that enrolled 202 subjects who received three injection cycles, 10–14 weeks in duration (the last cycle was fixed at 12 weeks). Changes in MAS-PF for incobotulinumtoxinA vs. placebo from baseline to Week 4 of the MP and to the end-of-cycle visits in the OLEX were evaluated.

Results

The area under the curve for the change in MAS-PF was statistically significantly greater with incobotulinumtoxinA vs. placebo in the MP (mean: −7.74 vs. −4.76; least squares mean: −8.40 vs. −5.81 [p = 0.0041]). In the OLEX, mean changes in MAS-PF from baseline to end-of-study showed continued improvement with repeated injections. No new safety concerns were observed with the incobotulinumtoxinA treatment. Its efficacy and safety were consistent regardless of the length of the injection cycle interval in the OLEX.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that incobotulinumtoxinA (total dose 400 U) is an effective and a well-tolerated treatment for LL spasticity in Japanese subjects using flexible injection intervals of 10–14 weeks.

Assessment, goal setting, and botulinum neurotoxin a therapy in the management of post-stroke spastic movement disorder: updated perspectives on best practice

INTRODUCTION

Post-stroke spastic movement disorder (PS-SMD) appears up to 20% in the first week following stroke and 40% in the chronic phase. It may create major hurdles to overcome in early stroke rehabilitation and as one relevant factor that reduces quality of life to a major degree in the chronic phase.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we discuss predictors,early identification, clinical assessments, goal setting, and management in multiprofessional team, including Botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT-A) injection for early and chronic management of PS-SMD.

EXPERT OPINION

The earlier PS-SMD is recognized and managed, the better the outcome will be. The comprehensive management in the subacute or chronic phase of PS-SMD with BoNT-A injections requires detailed assessment, patient-centered goal setting, technical-guided injection, effective dosing of BoNT-A per site, muscle, and session and timed adjunctive treatment, delivered in a multi-professional team approach in conjunction with physical treatment. Evidence-based data showed BoNT-A injections are safe and effective in managing focal, multifocal, segmental PS-SMD and its complications. If indicated, BoNT-A therapy should be accompanied with adjunctive treatment in adequate time slots. BoNT-A could be added to oral, intrathecal, and surgical treatment in severe multisegmental or generalized PS-SMD to reach patient/caregiver's goals, especially in chronic PS-SMD.

Pain Reduction in Adults with Limb Spasticity Following Treatment with IncobotulinumtoxinA: A Pooled Analysis

Some studies have shown that incobotulinumtoxinA reduces spasticity-associated pain, but further evidence is needed. This exploratory analysis pooled pain-relief data from six Phase 2 or 3 studies of incobotulinumtoxinA (four placebo-controlled studies) for treating upper limb spasticity in adults. Spasticity-associated pain was assessed at baseline and 4 weeks post incobotulinumtoxinA injection using the disability assessment scale (DAS) for pain. Only data for patients with pain at baseline were analysed. Overall, 544 (incobotulinumtoxinA, N = 415; placebo, N = 129) of 937 patients (58.1%) experienced pain at baseline. At Week 4, a significantly greater proportion of incobotulinumtoxinA- (52.1%) than placebo-treated patients (28.7%; Chi-square p < 0.0001) showed a response (≥1-point improvement in DAS pain score). In logistic regression analysis, incobotulinumtoxinA-treated patients were 2.6 times more likely to achieve this endpoint than placebo-treated patients. A significant difference between incobotulinumtoxinA and placebo was observed regardless of baseline pain severity. Additionally, 27.1% of incobotulinumtoxinA- versus 12.4% of placebo-treated patients reported complete pain relief at Week 4 (p = 0.0006). Pain relief increased with multiple injection cycles. To achieve patient-centred care, pain relief may be considered a treatment goal in adults with spasticity-associated pain regardless of pain severity. This study contributes to understanding the benefits of incobotulinumtoxinA in treating limb spasticity-associated pain.

A severe case of non-infective myositis six weeks post intramuscular injections of Onabotulinum toxin A (Botox) in a young man with tetraplegia: case report

INTRODUCTION

Myositis of unknown aetiology might be a very rare complication of intramuscular injections of onabotulinum toxin A (Botox) for spasticity treatment.

CASE PRESENTATION

We describe a case of significant myositis of unknown aetiology in a 17-year-old man, who was admitted for rehabilitation 4 months after his initial spinal cord injury (SCI) as a result of a mountain bike accident. He has an incomplete tetraplegia, C4 AIS B international Standards for Neurological Classification for Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI) [1] due to C5 vertebra 3 column fracture [2]. He had severe spasticity of his lower limb muscles treated with Botox, following which, he required two acute hospital transfers for diagnosis and management of myositis.

DISCUSSION

This is a severe unusual presentation of myositis caused by intramuscular botulinum toxin for treatment of spasticity, in the frequent setting of spasticity where intramuscular botulinum toxin injections are routinely used.

Do gait parameters improve after botulinum toxin injections in post stroke patients? A prospective study

The intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin is one of the most efficient ways to treat localized spasticity in patients suffering from Central Nervous System lesions like stroke, cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis. The gait analysis based on kinetics and kinematics is a recognized way of measurement of the effect of intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin in spastic patients suffering from chronic stroke. The aim of this study is to provide evidence of the beneficial effect of botulinum toxin on characteristics of gait pattern on patients suffering from chronic stroke. So, thirteen patients with spasticity due to chronic stroke were included in the protocol and were treated by botulinum toxin injections in the lower extremity. All patients were evaluated before the injection as well as one month after the botulinum injection on a foot pressure sensitive walkway with a power plate and by the readings of seven inertial measurements units which recorded spatio-temporal specific parameters during walking, and the spasticity was measured according to modified Ashworth Scale. While all spatio-temporal parameters of motion analysis and balance improved for most of the patients after botulinum toxin injection, only one parameter, the normal to hemiplegic step length, reached statistical significant improvement (p < 0.03). Moreover the modified Ashworth score was statistically improved post injection (p < 0.001). In conclusion the use of botulinum toxin injections is beneficial in post stroke patients as this is depicted in gait parameters improvement which accompanies the spasticity reduction.

Quantified clinical measures linked to ambulation speed in hemiparesis

Background: In spastic paresis, the respective contributions to active function of antagonist hypoextensibility, spasticity, and impaired descending command remain unknown. Objectives: We explored correlations between ambulation speed and coefficients of shortening, spasticity and, weakness for three lower limb extensors.Methods: This retrospective study identified 140 subjects with chronic hemiparesis (>6 months since injury) assessed during a single visit with barefoot 10-meter ambulation at comfortable and fast speed, and measurements of passive range of motion (X_V1), angle of catch at fast stretch (X_V3) and active range of motion (X_A) against the resistance of gastrocnemius, rectus femoris, and gluteus maximus. Coefficients of shortening (C_SH=[X_N-X_V1]/X_N; X_N, normal expected amplitude based on anatomical values), spasticity (C_SP=[X_V1-X_V3]/X_V1), and weakness (C_WK=[X_V1-X_A]/X_V1) were derived. For each muscle, multivariable analysis explored C_SH, C_SP, and C_WK as potential predictors of ambulation speed.Results: Ambulation speed was 0.62±0.28m/s (mean±SD, comfortable) and 0.84±0.38m/s (fast) and was correlated with C_SH and C_WK against gastrocnemius (C_SH, comfortable, ns; fast, β=-0.20, p=.03; C_WK, comfortable, β=-0.21, p=.010; fast, β=-0.21, p =.012), rectus femoris (C_SH, comfortable, β=-0.41, p=6E^-7; fast, β=-0.43, p=5E^-7; C_WK, comfortable, β=-0.36, p=5E^-5; fast, β=-0.33, p=.0003) and gluteus maximus (C_SH, comfortable, β=-0.19, p=.02; fast, β=-0.26, p=.002; C_WK, comfortable, β=-0.26, p=.002; fast, β=-0.22, p=.010). Ambulation speed was not correlated with C_SP.Conclusions: In chronic hemiparesis, ambulation speed correlates with coefficients of shortening and of weakness in lower limb extensors, but not with their spasticity level. This may encourage therapists to focus treatment primarily on muscle shortening by stretching programs and on impaired descending command by active training.

OnabotulinumtoxinA for the prophylactic treatment of headaches in adult patients with chronic migraine: a safety evaluation

Introduction: Existing oral prophylaxis for chronic migraine (CM) are often ineffective or poorly tolerated. OnabotulinumtoxinA (onabotA) is approved for headache prophylaxis in CM and ameliorates headaches in patients refractory to multiple preventatives.Areas covered: We appraise evidence regarding action mechanisms, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics of onabotA in CM prophylaxis. We critically evaluate salient clinical and real-world studies demonstrating its efficacy in improving multiple aspects of CM. We discuss onabotA safety, tolerability, and adverse events (AEs) for CM prophylaxis from clinical trials, post-authorization studies and meta-analyses, including novel pregnancy safety data and comparisons with oral prophylactics. We explore areas of future interest, particularly onabotA safety and efficacy in the context of novel antibody-based prophylaxis.Expert opinion: Clinical and real-world evidence demonstrate onabotA safety, tolerability and efficacy for CM prophylaxis. Most AEs are mild/moderate and self-limiting, with few serious AEs and no treatment-related deaths. Common AEs include neck pain, ptosis, muscle weakness, and stiffness. Modifying existing responder-criteria enables more patients to benefit from onabotA. OnabotA shows superior safety and efficacy to oral preventatives, and appears safe in pregnancy. Future pregnancy-risk register will clarify pregnancy and lactation safety further. Future research comparing onabotA safety and efficacy with newly emergent antibody-based prophylaxis is keenly awaited.

Efficacy and Optimal Dose of Botulinum Toxin A in Post-Stroke Lower Extremity Spasticity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Post-stroke spasticity impedes patients’ rehabilitation progress. Contradictory evidence has been reported in using Botulinum Neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A) to manage post-stroke lower extremity spasticity (PLES); furthermore, an optimum dose of BoNT-A for PLES has not yet been established. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to identify the efficacy and optimal dose of BoNT-A on PLES. "Meta" and "Metafor" packages in R were used to analyze the data. Hedges’ g statistic and random effect model were used to calculate and pool effect sizes. Twelve RCTs met the eligibility criteria. Muscle tone significantly improved in week four, week eight, and maintained to week twelve after BoNT-A injection. Improvements in functional outcomes were found, some inconsistencies among included studies were noticed. Dosage analysis from eight studies using Botox® and three studies using Dysport® indicated that the optimum dose for the commonest pattern of PLES (spastic plantar flexors) is medium-dose (approximately 300U Botox® or 1000 U Dysport®). BoNT-A should be regarded as part of a rehabilitation program for PLES. Furthermore, an optimal rehabilitation program combined with BoNT-A management needs to be established. Further studies should also focus on functional improvement by BoNT-A management in the early stage of stroke.

BoNT-A for Post-Stroke Spasticity: Guidance on Unmet Clinical Needs from a Delphi Panel Approach

There is extensive literature supporting the efficacy of botulinum toxin (BoNT-A) for the treatment of post-stroke spasticity, however, there remain gaps in the routine management of patients with post-stroke spasticity. A panel of 21 Italian experts was selected to participate in this web-based survey Delphi process to provide guidance that can support clinicians in the decision-making process. There was a broad consensus among physicians that BoNT-A intervention should be administered as soon as the spasticity interferes with the patients' clinical condition. Patients monitoring is needed over time, a follow-up of 4-6 weeks is considered necessary. Furthermore, physicians agreed that treatment should be offered irrespective of the duration of the spasticity. The Delphi consensus also stressed the importance of patient-centered goals in order to satisfy the clinical needs of the patient regardless of time of onset or duration of spasticity. The findings arising from this Delphi process provide insights into the unmet needs in managing post-stroke spasticity from the clinician's perspective and provides guidance for physicians for the utilization of BoNT-A for the treatment of post-stroke spasticity in daily practice.

Synergic use of botulinum toxin injection and radial extracorporeal shockwave therapy in Multiple Sclerosis spasticity

BACKGROUND AND AIM

In Multiple Sclerosis (MS) spasticity worsen patient's quality of life. Botulinum NeuroToxin TypeA (BoNT-A) is extensively used in focal spasticity, frequently combined with physical therapies. Radial extracorporeal shock waves (rESW) were already used in association with BoNT-A.  Considering that loss of efficacy and adverse events are determinants of BoNT-A treatment interruption, this study aimed to evaluate the possibility to prolong BoNT-A's effect by using rESW in MS focal spasticity.

METHODS

Sixteen MS patients with spasticity of triceps surae muscles were first subjected to BoNT-A therapy and, four months later, to 4 sections of rESWT. Patients were evaluated before, 30, 90 days after the end of the treatments, by using Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS), Modified Tardieu Scale (MTS) and kinematic analysis of passive and active ankle ROM.   Results: BoNT-A determined a significant reduction of spasticity evaluated by MAS with a reduction of positive effects after 4months (p<0.05); MTS highlighted the efficacy only 90 days after injection (p<0.05). rESWT decreased MAS values at the end and 30 days later the treatment (p<0.01); MTS values showed instead a prolonged effect (p<0.01). BoNT-A determined a gain of passive and active ankle ROM, persisting along with treatment and peaking the maximum value after rESWT (p<0.05).  Conclusions: rESWT can prolong BoNT-A effect inducing significant reduction of spasticity and improvement in passive and active ankle ROM in MS patients. The use of rESWT following BoNT-A injection is useful to avoid some limitations and to prolong the therapeutic effects of BoNT-A therapy.

IncobotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of lower-limb spasticity in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy: A phase 3 study

PURPOSE

Investigate the efficacy and safety of multipattern incobotulinumtoxinA injections in children/adolescents with lower-limb cerebral palsy (CP)-related spasticity.

METHODS

Phase 3 double-blind study in children/adolescents (Gross Motor Function Classification System - Expanded and Revised I-V) with unilateral or bilateral spastic CP and Ashworth Scale (AS) plantar flexor (PF) scores ⩾ 2 randomized (1:1:2) to incobotulinumtoxinA (4, 12, 16 U/kg, maximum 100, 300, 400 U, respectively) for two 12- to 36-week injection cycles. Two clinical patterns were treated. Pes equinus (bilateral or unilateral) was mandatory; if unilateral, treatment included flexed knee or adducted thigh.

ENDPOINTS

Primary: AS-PF change from baseline to 4 weeks; Coprimary: investigator-rated Global Impression of Change Scale (GICS)-PF at 4 weeks; Secondary: investigator's, patient's, and parent's/caregiver's GICS, Gross Motor Function Measure-66 (GMFM-66).

RESULTS

Among 311 patients, AS-PF and AS scores in all treated clinical patterns improved from baseline to 4-weeks post-injection and cumulatively across injection cycles. GICS-PF and GICS scores confirmed global spasticity improvements. GMFM-66 scores indicated better motor function. No significant differences between doses were evident. Treatment was well-tolerated, with no unexpected treatment-related adverse events or neutralising antibody development.

CONCLUSION

Children/adolescents with lower-limb spasticity experienced multipattern benefits from incobotulinumtoxinA, which was safe and well-tolerated in doses up to 16 U/kg, maximum 400 U.

Impact of early intervention with onabotulinumtoxinA treatment in adult patients with post-stroke lower limb spasticity: results from the double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 REFLEX study

The aim of this study in patients with post-stroke lower limb spasticity (PSLLS) was to evaluate the relationship between time of onabotulinumtoxinA treatment relative to stroke and efficacy outcomes. This was a phase 3, international, multicenter, randomized, 12-week, double-blind study, followed by a repeated treatment, open-label extension. Patients were aged 18–85 years with PSLLS (Modified Ashworth Scale [MAS] ≥ 3) of the ankle with the most recent stroke occurring ≥ 3 months before screening. Patients (double-blind phase) were randomized (n = 468) to onabotulinumtoxinA 300–400 U (300 U, mandatory ankle muscles (gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis posterior); and ≤ 100 U, optional lower limb muscles (flexor digitorum longus, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum brevis, extensor hallucis, and rectus femoris]) or placebo. Primary endpoint: MAS change from baseline (average score of weeks 4 and 6). Secondary endpoints: physician-assessed Clinical Global Impression of Change (CGI) average score of weeks 4 and 6 and physician-assessed Goal Attainment Scale (GAS; active and passive, weeks 8 and 12). When stratified by time since stroke (≤ 24 months, n = 153; > 24 months, n = 315, post hoc), patients treated ≤ 24 months post-stroke experienced greater improvements from baseline versus placebo in MAS (− 0.31 vs − 0.17), CGI (0.49 vs 0.12), and passive GAS scores (week 12, 0.37 vs 0.26). A ≥  − 1-point improvement in active (week 12; p = 0.04) and passive (week 8; p = 0.02) GAS scores versus placebo was achieved by more patients treated ≤ 24 months post-stroke; in patients treated > 24 months post-stroke, improvements were only observed in active scores (week 8; p = 0.04). OnabotulinumtoxinA 300–400 U was well tolerated, with no new safety findings.

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Treatment with Botulinum Toxin on Sleep Quality in Stroke-Related Spasticity

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Botulinum toxin (BoNT) is a commonly used agent in the treatment of stroke-related spasticity. Sleep disorders can often be seen as a comorbidity or complication in stroke patients. Based on the data that spasticity is associated with sleep disorders, in this study, we aimed to evaluate whether sleep quality has changed in patients with stroke treated with BoNT.

METHODS

Thirty five (17 female / 18 male) stroke patients with gastrocnemius and / or soleus spasticity were included in this observational cross-sectional study. In clinical evaluation before and three months after BoNT injection; for spasticity evaluation modified Ashworth scale (MAS), pain assessment visual analog scale (VAS), functional evaluation; passive joint range of motion (ROM) measurement, functional independence measurement (FIM), lower limb Brunstrom staging, life quality assessment short form-36 (SF-36) quality of life scale, and sleep quality assessment Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) scales were used.

RESULTS

After the BoNT injection, there was a statistically significant decrease in MAS and VAS scores, a significant increase in passive ROM measurements, FIM, lower limb Brunstrom staging, and SF-36 physical function sub parameter. There was also a significant decrease in PSQI scores. Before and after treatment, there was no correlation found between PSQI values with pain and spasticity. However, there was a weak negative correlation between post-treatment PSQI values, passive ROM, SF-36 physical function and SF-36 physical role sub parameters (respectively: r: -0.335 p: 0.049, r: -0.364, 0.032, r: -0.404, p: 0.016). Conlusion: The results of our study suggest that BoNT, which is frequently used in the treatment of spasticity in stroke patients, has positive effects on sleep quality.

High clinician- and patient-reported satisfaction with individualized onabotulinumtoxinA treatment for spasticity across several etiologies from the ASPIRE study

Etiology-specific onabotulinumtoxinA utilization to manage spasticity is largely unknown. In this 1-year interim analysis, we evaluated real-world onabotulinumtoxinA utilization and effectiveness across several etiologies from the Adult Spasticity International Registry (ASPIRE) study. ASPIRE is a multicenter, prospective, observational registry (NCT01930786) examining stroke, multiple sclerosis [MS], cerebral palsy [CP], traumatic brain injury [TBI], and spinal cord injury [SCI] patients with spasticity treated with onabotulinumtoxinA at the clinician's discretion. Assessments included onabotulinumtoxinA utilization (each session), clinician (subsequent session)/patient (5±1 weeks post-treatment) satisfaction, and the Disability Assessment Scale (DAS; subsequent session). 730 patients received ≥1 onabotulinumtoxinA treatment, with 37% naïve to botulinum toxin(s) for spasticity. The most common etiology was stroke (n=411, 56%), followed by MS (N=119, 16%), CP (N=77, 11%), TBI (N=45, 6%), and SCI (N=42, 6%). The total body mean cumulative dose (±SD) of onabotulinumtoxinA per session ranged from 296 U (±145) in CP to 406 U (±152) in TBI. The most commonly treated upper limb presentations were clenched fist (stroke, MS, and SCI), flexed wrist (CP), and flexed elbow (TBI). Equinovarus foot was the most commonly treated lower limb presentation in all etiologies. Stroke patients showed improved DAS scores for nearly all subscales in both limbs, indicative of improved global function. All etiologies showed improved lower limb mobility DAS scores. Across all sessions, clinicians (range: 87.4% [SCI]-94.2% [CP]) and patients (range: 67.6% [TBI]-89.7% [SCI]) reported extreme satisfaction/satisfaction that onabotulinumtoxinA helped manage spasticity, and clinicians (range: 94.6% [TBI]-98.8% [CP]) and patients (range: 88.4% [stroke]-91.2% [TBI]) would definitely/probably continue treatment. Treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) and treatment-related serious adverse events (TRSAEs) were reported as follows: stroke: 10 TRAEs (2.2% patients), 3 TRSAEs (0.5%); MS: 5 TRAEs (4.2%), 0 TRSAEs; CP: 0 TRAEs, 0 TRSAEs; TBI: 1 TRAEs (2.2%), 0 TRSAEs; SCI: 0 TRAEs, 0 TRSAEs. No new safety signals were identified. High clinician- and patient-reported satisfaction were observed following individualized onabotulinumtoxinA treatment, as well as improved global function. Interim results from ASPIRE demonstrate etiology-specific similarities and differences in clinical approaches to manage spasticity.

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ASPIRE found etiology-specific similarities and differences in real-world onabotulinumtoxinA utilization for spasticity.

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Across all etiologies, there was high clinician- and patient-reported satisfaction with onabotulinumtoxinA treatment.

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In DAS, all etiologies showed improved global function in lower limb mobility following onabotulinumtoxinA treatment.

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Adverse event data varied by etiology of spasticity; however, no new safety signals were identified.

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ASPIRE data may guide clinical strategies and educational programs to improve onabotulinumtoxinA spasticity management.

Mechanism of Action of OnabotulinumtoxinA in Chronic Migraine: A Narrative Review

Objective

To review the literature on the mechanism of action of onabotulinumtoxinA in chronic migraine.

Background

OnabotulinumtoxinA is a chronic migraine preventive treatment that significantly reduces headache frequency. The traditional mechanism described for onabotulinumtoxinA – reducing muscle contractions – is insufficient to explain its efficacy in migraine, which is primarily a sensory neurological disease.

Methods

A narrative literature review on the mechanism of action of onabotulinumtoxinA in chronic migraine.

Results

Following injection into tissues, onabotulinumtoxinA inhibits soluble N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive fusion attachment protein receptor (SNARE)‐mediated vesicle trafficking by cleaving one of its essential proteins, soluble N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive fusion attachment protein (SNAP‐25), which occurs in both motor and sensory nerves. OnabotulinumtoxinA inhibits regulated exocytosis of motor and sensory neurochemicals and proteins, as well as membrane insertion of peripheral receptors that convey pain from the periphery to the brain, because both processes are SNARE dependent. OnabotulinumtoxinA can decrease exocytosis of pro‐inflammatory and excitatory neurotransmitters and neuropeptides such as substance P, calcitonin gene‐related peptide, and glutamate from primary afferent fibers that transmit nociceptive pain and participate in the development of peripheral and central sensitization. OnabotulinumtoxinA also decreases the insertion of pain‐sensitive ion channels such as transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) into the membranes of nociceptive neurons; this is likely enhanced in the sensitized neuron. For chronic migraine prevention, onabotulinumtoxinA is injected into 31‐39 sites in 7 muscles of the head and neck. Sensory nerve endings of neurons whose cell bodies are located in trigeminal and cervical ganglia are distributed throughout the injected muscles, and are overactive in people with migraine. Through inhibition of these sensory nerve endings, onabotulinumtoxinA reduces the number of pain signals that reach the brain and consequently prevents activation and sensitization of central neurons postulated to be involved in migraine chronification.

Conclusion

OnabotulinumtoxinA likely acts via sensory mechanisms to treat chronic migraine.

Combined effects of backward treadmill training and botulinum toxin type A therapy on gait and balance in patients with chronic stroke: A pilot, single-blind, randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Backward walking is recommended to improve the components of physiological gait in neurological disease. Botulinum toxin type A is an effective safe first line-treatment for post-stroke spasticity.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effects of backward treadmill training (BTT) versus standard forward treadmill training (FTT) on motor impairment in patients with chronic stroke receiving botulinum toxin type A therapy.

METHODS

Eighteen chronic stroke patients were randomly assigned to receive BTT (n = 7) or FTT (n = 11) as adjunct to botulinum toxin type A therapy. A total of twelve 40-minute sessions (3 sessions/week for 4 weeks) of either BTT or FTT were conducted. A blinded assessor evaluated the patients before and after treatment. The primary outcome was the 10-meter Walking Test (10 MWT). Secondary outcomes were the modified Ashworth Scale, gait analysis, and stabilometric assessment.

RESULTS

Between-group comparison showed a significant change on the 10 MWT (P = 0.008) and on stabilometric assessment [length of centre of pressure CoP (P = 0.001) and sway area (P = 0.002) eyes open and length of CoP (P = 0.021) and sway area (P = 0.008) eyes closed] after treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Greater improvement in gait and balance was noted after BTT than after FTT as an adjunct to botulinum toxin therapy in patients with chronic stroke.

Composite active range of motion (CXA) and relationship with active function in upper and lower limb spastic paresis

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to evaluate a novel composite measure of active range of motion (X_A) and determine whether this measure correlates with active function.

DESIGN

Post hoc analysis of two randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies with open-label extensions exploring changes in active function with abobotulinumtoxinA.

SETTING

Tertiary rehabilitation centers in Australia, Europe, and the United States.

SUBJECTS

Adults with upper (n = 254) or lower (n = 345) limb spastic paresis following stroke or brain trauma.

INTERVENTIONS

AbobotulinumtoxinA (⩽5 treatment cycles) in the upper or lower limb.

MAIN MEASURES

X_A was used to calculate a novel composite measure (CX_A), defined as the sum of X_A against elbow, wrist, and extrinsic finger flexors (upper limb) or soleus and gastrocnemius muscles (lower limb). Active function was assessed by the Modified Frenchay Scale and 10-m comfortable barefoot walking speed in the upper limb and lower limb, respectively. Correlations between CX_A and active function at Weeks 4 and 12 of open-label cycles were explored.

RESULTS

CX_A and active function were moderately correlated in the upper limb (P < 0.0001-0.0004, r = 0.476-0.636) and weakly correlated in the lower limb (P < 0.0001-0.0284, r = 0.186-0.285) at Weeks 4 and 12 of each open-label cycle. Changes in CX_A and active function were weakly correlated only in the upper limb (Cycle 2 Week 12, P = 0.0160, r = 0.213; Cycle 3 Week 4, P = 0.0031, r = 0.296). Across cycles, CX_A improvements peaked at Week 4, while functional improvements peaked at Week 12.

CONCLUSION

CX_A is a valid measure for functional impairments in spastic paresis. CX_A improvements following abobotulinumtoxinA injection correlated with and preceded active functional improvements.

Efficacy of incobotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of adult lower-limb post-stroke spasticity, including pes equinovarus

BACKGROUND

Lower-limb spasticity can impair ambulation and gait, impacting quality of life.

OBJECTIVES

This ancillary analysis of the TOWER study (NCT01603459) assessed the efficacy of incobotulinumtoxinA for lower-limb post-stroke spasticity including pes equinovarus.

METHODS

Participants received escalating incobotulinumtoxinA doses (400-800U) across 3 injection cycles. Changes were compared for those treated in the lower limb (with/without upper-limb treatment) or the upper limb only or for participants treated or untreated for pes equinovarus. Outcome measures were those used in the seminal study: resistance to passive movement scale (REPAS), Ashworth Scale (AS), functional ambulation and lower-limb goal attainment.

RESULTS

Among 132/155 (85%) participants with post-stroke spasticity, in cycles 1, 2 and 3, 99, 119 and 121 participants received lower-limb treatment with mean (SD) total limb incobotulinumtoxinA doses of 189.2 (99.2), 257.1 (115.0) and 321.3 (129.2) U, respectively. Of these, 80, 105 and 107, respectively, were treated for pes equinovarus. The mean (SD) improvement in REPAS lower-limb score was greater with treatment in the lower limb versus the upper limb only: -1.6 (2.1) versus-0.4 (1.4); -1.9 (1.9) versus -0.6 (1.6); -2.2 (2.2) versus -1.0 (0.0) (P=0.0005, P=0.0133 and P=0.3581; analysis of covariance [ANCOVA], between-group differences) in cycles 1, 2 and 3, respectively. For all cycles, the mean improvement in ankle joint AS score from injection to 4 weeks post-treatment was greater for participants treated versus not treated for pes equinovarus, with a significant between-group difference in cycle 1 (P=0.0099; ANCOVA). At the end of cycle 3, 42% of participants walked independently and 63% achieved 2 of 2 lower-limb treatment goals (baseline 23% and 34%, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports the efficacy of incobotulinumtoxinA for treatment of pes equinovarus and other patterns of lower-limb post-stroke spasticity.

Safety of OnabotulinumtoxinA with Concomitant Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients with Muscle Spasticity: A Retrospective Pooled Analysis of Randomized Double-Blind Studies

BACKGROUND

OnabotulinumtoxinA is approved as a treatment across multiple indications. For the treatment of spasticity, onabotulinumtoxinA is injected directly into affected muscles. Intramuscular injections may result in local bleeding and related complications, especially in patients receiving anticoagulant therapy. Despite anticoagulants being commonly used, there is limited information in the medical literature regarding the safety of intramuscular medications in patients receiving oral anticoagulants. This retrospective analysis included pooled safety data from Allergan-sponsored studies evaluating onabotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of patients with muscle spasticity.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to determine the risk of bleeding complications in patients with post-stroke spasticity receiving antithrombotic therapy and intramuscular onabotulinumtoxinA.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of pooled safety data from 16 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Allergan-sponsored studies of onabotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of post-stroke upper or lower limb muscle spasticity, including adult patients with at least moderate upper or lower limb spasticity and receiving at least one dose of the study drug. Bleeding-related adverse events starting within 4 weeks of study treatment were assessed. The incidence rates of bleeding complications were compared for patients receiving classes of antithrombotic therapy vs those not receiving antithrombotic therapy and for those receiving onabotulinumtoxinA vs placebo (with or without antithrombotic therapy).

RESULTS

Of 1877 patients, 1182 received antithrombotic therapy. The overall incidence of bleeding complications was < 2%. In those receiving any antithrombotic therapy, the incidence of bleeding was 1.0% vs 1.4% (no antithrombotic therapy); after onabotulinumtoxinA, it was 0.9% for those receiving antithrombotic therapy vs 1.4% (no antithrombotic therapy), and for placebo 1.2% vs 1.4%, respectively. Subgroup results were similar.

CONCLUSIONS

No apparent increased risk of bleeding complications was observed following administration of onabotulinumtoxinA to patients receiving antithrombotic therapy. Nonetheless, patient education and careful observation of the injection site in patients receiving antithrombotic therapy remains warranted.

Botulinum Toxin Type A for the Treatment of Lower Limb Spasticity after Stroke

Post-stroke lower limb spasticity impairs balance and gait leading to reduced walking speed, often increasing wheelchair use and caregiver burden. Several studies have shown that appropriate treatments for lower limb spasticity after stroke include injections of botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A), phenol or alcohol, surgical correction and a rehabilitation program. In the present article, we review the safety and effectiveness of BoNT-A for the treatment of lower limb spasticity after stroke, with a focus on higher doses of BoNT-A. The cumulative body of evidence coming from the randomized clinical trials and open-label studies selected in the article suggest BoNT-A to be safe and efficacious in reducing lower limb spasticity after stroke. Studies of high doses of BoNT-A also showed a greater reduction of severe post-stroke spasticity. In stroke survivors with spasticity of the ankle plantar-flexor muscles, a combined approach between surgery and BoNT-A can be indicated. However, controversy remains about improvement in motor function relative to post-stroke spasticity reduction after BoNT-A treatment.

Impact of instrumental analysis of stiff knee gait on treatment appropriateness and associated costs in stroke patients

BACKGROUND

Stiff Knee Gait (SKG) in stroke patients is typically treated by the inhibition of the rectus femoris (RF) with botulinum toxin (BoNT) after clinical evaluation, obtaining an average pooled recovery in knee flexion (KF) of 7 degrees.

PURPOSE

Our hypothesis is that this limited recovery after BoNT could depend on the inadequacy in the selection of patients to be treated. The aim of this study was to assess the percentage of inappropriate treatments (PIT) that can be avoided when instrumental gait analysis (GA) is used, and to estimate the associated cost savings.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed GA data from chronic stroke patients with SKG and clinically assessed knee extensors spasticity referred to our laboratory over a five-year period. Gait kinematics and dynamic electromyography data were used. Patients were considered unsuitable for RF inhibition when: their SKG was determined by inadequate ankle push-off (APO) rather than by a brake from knee extensors, based on a previously published algorithm using gait kinematics (PIT_KIN); when RF was not active during KF (PIT_EMG); and when a proximal braking mechanism was found, if this was not due to RF activity (PIT_GA).

RESULTS

160 patients, age 20-87 years, gait speed 9-77%height/s, KF peak -4-44 degrees, were included. Of these, in 119 cases poor APO was the main cause of SKG, thus leading to PIT_KIN = 74%. In 48 out of 107 non-obese subjects, RF spasticity was not involved in SKG, resulting in PIT_EMG = 45%. Finally, patients with a braking activity as the main cause and concurrent RF activity were 20/107 = 19%, resulting in PIT_GA = 81% SIGNIFICANCE: When treating SKG, proper use of GA can reduce the percentage of inappropriate treatments by BoNT at the RF up to 81%. Savings are in the order of €100k/year when considering centers treating 100 or more patients/year.

Optimal Muscle Selection for OnabotulinumtoxinA Injections in Poststroke Lower-Limb Spasticity: A Randomized Trial

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to identify optimal muscle selection patterns for onabotulinumtoxinA treatment of poststroke lower-limb spasticity.

DESIGN

Adults with poststroke lower-limb spasticity (ankle Modified Ashworth Scale ≥3) were randomized to onabotulinumtoxinA (300 U, mandatory ankle plantar flexors; ≤100 U, optional lower-limb muscles) or placebo. Post hoc analysis assessed the impact of muscle selection patterns on ankle Modified Ashworth Scale and physician-assessed Clinical Global Impression of Change based on change from baseline to average of weeks 4/6 versus placebo.

RESULTS

Among 468 patients randomized, onabotulinumtoxinA improved ankle Modified Ashworth Scale (-0.81 vs -0.61, P = 0.01) and Clinical Global Impression of Change (0.86 vs 0.65, P = 0.012) versus placebo. Injection of mandatory muscles alone was not sufficient in improving ankle Modified Ashworth Scale (P = 0.255) or Clinical Global Impression of Change (P = 0.576) versus placebo but was adequate 24 mos or less after stroke (Modified Ashworth Scale, -1.13 vs -0.62, P = 0.019; Clinical Global Impression of Change, 1.24 vs 0.68, P = 0.006). Additional injections into toe muscles (flexor digitorum longus, flexor hallucis longus) improved ankle Modified Ashworth Scale (-0.98 vs -0.52, P = 0.002) and Clinical Global Impression of Change (0.80 vs 0.38, P = 0.023) versus placebo regardless of time since stroke. OnabotulinumtoxinA was well tolerated, with no new safety findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Post hoc analyses suggested additional injections of onabotulinumtoxinA into toe flexors improved ankle Modified Ashworth Scale and Clinical Global Impression of Change scores versus mandatory muscles alone overall and with treatment initiation more than 24 mos after stroke.

Efficacy and Safety of Botulinum Toxin Type A for Limb Spasticity after Stroke: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background

Inconsistent data have been reported for the effectiveness of intramuscular botulinum toxin type A (BTXA) in patients with limb spasticity after stroke. This meta-analysis of available randomized controlled trials (RCTs) aimed to determine the efficacy and safety of BTXA in adult patients with upper and lower limb spasticity after stroke.

Methods

An electronic search was performed to select eligible RCTs in PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane library through December 2018. Summary standard mean differences (SMDs) and relative risk (RR) values with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were employed to assess effectiveness and safety outcomes, respectively.

Results

Twenty-seven RCTs involving a total of 2,793 patients met the inclusion criteria, including 16 and 9 trials assessing upper and lower limb spasticity cases, respectively. For upper limb spasticity, BTXA therapy significantly improved the levels of muscle tone (SMD=-0.76; 95% CI -0.97 to -0.55; P<0.001), physician global assessment (SMD=0.51; 95% CI 0.35-0.67; P<0.001), and disability assessment scale (SMD=-0.30; 95% CI -0.40 to -0.20; P<0.001), with no significant effects on active upper limb function (SMD=0.49; 95% CI -0.08 to 1.07; P=0.093) and adverse events (RR=1.18; 95% CI 0.72-1.93; P=0.509). For lower limb spasticity, BTXA therapy was associated with higher Fugl-Meyer score (SMD=5.09; 95%CI 2.16-8.01; P=0.001), but had no significant effects on muscle tone (SMD=-0.12; 95% CI -0.83 to 0.59; P=0.736), gait speed (SMD=0.06; 95% CI -0.02 to 0.15; P=0.116), and adverse events (RR=1.01; 95% CI 0.71-1.45; P=0.949).

Conclusions

BTXA improves muscle tone, physician global assessment, and disability assessment scale in upper limb spasticity and increases the Fugl-Meyer score in lower limb spasticity.

The neurophysiology of deforming spastic paresis: A revised taxonomy

This paper revisits the taxonomy of the neurophysiological consequences of a persistent impairment of motor command execution in the classic environment of sensorimotor restriction and muscle hypo-mobilization in short position. Around each joint, the syndrome involves 2 disorders, muscular and neurologic. The muscular disorder is promoted by muscle hypo-mobilization in short position in the context of paresis, in the hours and days after paresis onset: this genetically mediated, evolving myopathy, is called spastic myopathy. The clinician may suspect it by feeling extensibility loss in a resting muscle, although long after the actual onset of the disease. The neurologic disorder, promoted by sensorimotor restriction in the context of paresis and by the muscle disorder itself, comprises 4 main components, mostly affecting antagonists to desired movements: the first is spastic dystonia, an unwanted, involuntary muscle activation at rest, in the absence of stretch or voluntary effort; spastic dystonia superimposes on spastic myopathy to cause visible, gradually increasing body deformities; the second is spastic cocontraction, an unwanted, involuntary antagonist muscle activation during voluntary effort directed to the agonist, aggravated by antagonist stretch; it is primarily due to misdirection of the supraspinal descending drive and contributes to reducing movement amplitude; and the third is spasticity, one form of hyperreflexia, defined by an enhancement of the velocity-dependent responses to phasic stretch, detected and measured at rest (another form of hyperreflexia is "nociceptive spasms", following flexor reflex afferent stimulation, particularly after spinal cord lesions). The 3 main forms of overactivity, spastic dystonia, spastic cocontraction and spasticity, share the same motor neuron hyperexcitability as a contributing factor, all being predominant in the muscles that are more affected by spastic myopathy. The fourth component of the neurologic disorder affects the agonist: it is stretch-sensitive paresis, which is a decreased access of the central command to the agonist, aggravated by antagonist stretch. Improved understanding of the pathophysiology of deforming spastic paresis should help clinicians select meaningful assessments and refined treatments, including the utmost need to preserve muscle tissue integrity as soon as paresis sets in.