Non-commercial poultry industries: Surveys of backyard and gamefowl breeder flocks in the United States

Assessment of the knowledge and behavior of backyard and small-scale producers in California regarding disease prevention, biosecurity practices and antibiotics use

The number and popularity of backyard poultry and livestock farming have rapidly increased in California as well as other states in the United States following consumers' preference for local and organic products in the last few years. This study aimed to investigate current on-farm management and farmers' understanding of Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) and California Senate Bill (SB) 27 implications for disease prevention, biosecurity procedures, and antimicrobial use in small-scale and backyard farms in California. The survey consisted of 38 questions. The responses of 242 backyard and small-scale livestock owners were investigated in this study. Descriptive statistics summarized survey responses, and multivariable logistic regression evaluated the association of antibiotics purchase and use, and the impact of VFD and SB27 on antibiotic use with demographics and on-farm management. Backyard and small-scale farmers in California mostly raised chickens or small ruminants with small herd sizes kept for personal use. Antibiotics were generally used for individual treatment of a sick animal with the guidance of a veterinarian. VFD and SB27 implementation promoted the judicious use of antibiotics, specifically, by enhancing the relationship between backyard and small-scale farmers with veterinarians and treating fewer animals with antibiotics under veterinary oversight. Therefore, better access to veterinary service in backyard and small-scale farms will improve the farmer's knowledge of good husbandry practices with judicious antimicrobial use in livestock and finally contribute to reducing the risk of antimicrobial resistance in California.

Outreach Efforts to Prevent Newcastle Disease Outbreaks in Southern California

In May 2018, an outbreak of virulent Newcastle disease (vND) affected backyard and commercial premises in Southern California. The re-occurrence of these outbreaks since the 1970s suggests that some poultry communities may not have reliable and stable resources available regarding biosecurity and disease prevention. Therefore, staff at the University of California, Davis (UCD) School of Veterinary Medicine (SVM), and the California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) began organizing educational events and learning more about the gamefowl breeder community through a needs assessment exercise, during which local feedstores and neighborhoods were also visited. Focus groups were organized with breeders in various cities within the regional quarantine area, established by the CDFA during the vND outbreak. The focus groups were aimed at creating open communication networks with gamefowl breeders in the affected area, as well as to learn about their current sources of information, learning preferences, and current management practices. With the input from gamefowl breeders, as well as funding and input from the CDFA and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a quality assurance program called the “Gamefowl Wellness Program” was established. Educational content was created and published through the UCD Gamefowl Wellness Program poultry health website. Additionally, with the help of the CDFA, the USDA, and pharmaceutical companies, Newcastle disease vaccines and training for their application were provided to feedstores with gamefowl breeder clientele. Nurturing trust with these poultry communities allowed us to receive the information needed to develop effective outreach strategies that could better serve them. Responding to community concerns might be a way to garner the trust necessary to prevent or at least promptly detect foreign animal disease outbreaks.

Risky business in Georgia's wild birds: Contact rates between wild birds and backyard chickens is influenced by supplemental feed

Backyard chickens are increasingly popular, and their husbandry varies widely. How backyard chickens are housed may influence the accessibility of chicken feed and water to wild birds, and thus, the contact rates between both groups. Increased contacts have implications for pathogen transmission; for instance, Newcastle disease virus or avian influenza virus may be transmitted to and from backyard chickens from contaminated water or feed. Given this potentially increased pathogen risk to wild birds and backyard chickens, we examined which wild bird species are likely to encounter backyard chickens and their resources. We performed a supplemental feeding experiment followed by observations at three sites associated with backyard chickens in North Georgia, USA. At each site, we identified the species of wild birds that: (a) shared habitat with the chickens, (b) had a higher frequency of detection relative to other species and (c) encountered the coops. We identified 14 wild bird species that entered the coops to consume supplemental feed and were considered high-risk for pathogen transmission. Our results provide evidence that contact between wild birds and backyard chickens is frequent and more common than previously believed, which has crucial epidemiological implications for wildlife managers and backyard chicken owners.

Web Crawling of Social Media and Related Web Platforms to Analyze Backyard Poultry Owners Responses to the 2018-2020 Newcastle Disease (ND) Outbreak in Southern California

As social media becomes an ever-increasing staple of everyday life and a growing percentage of people turn to community driven platforms as a primary source of information, the data created from these posts can provide a new source of information from which to better understand an event in near real-time. The 2018-2020 outbreak of Newcastle disease (ND) in Southern California is the third outbreak of ND in Southern California within a 50-year time span. These outbreaks are thought to be primarily driven by non-commercial poultry (i.e. backyard and game fowl) in the region. Here we employed a commercial "web crawling" tool between June of 2018 and July of 2020 which encompassed the majority of the outbreak in order to collect all available online mentions of "virulent Newcastle Disease" (vND), the terminology commonly used by the California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the general public, in relation to the outbreak. A total of 2,498 posts in English and Spanish were returned using a Boolean logic-based string search. While the number of posts was relatively small, their impact as measured by the number of visitors to the website and the number of people viewing the post (where provided) was much larger. Posts with negative sentiment were found to have a larger audience relative to posts with a positive sentiment. In addition, posts with negative sentiment peaked in May of 2019 which preceded the formation of the anti-depopulation group Save Our Birds (SOB). As the usage and impact of social media grows, the ability to utilize tools to analyze social media may improve both response and outreach-based strategies for various disease outbreaks including vND in Southern California which has a large non-commercial poultry population. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Backyard poultry flocks in France: A diversity of owners and biosecurity practices

Over the past few years, the number of backyard poultry flocks has been increasing in France. A mandatory step to improve backyard poultry management is to assess health risks by characterizing the flocks and understanding the owners' motivations for keeping poultry and their husbandry practices. A survey of backyard poultry owners was conducted in France to gather information about their motivations for owning poultry, flock characteristics, and breeding and biosecurity practices. The survey was completed by 1,160 owners. The major motivations for owning poultry flocks were egg consumption (93.3 %), recycling (72.4 %) and having pet animals (53.2 %). Most owners had already heard about avian influenza (96.7 %), but were less aware about other diseases such as Newcastle Disease (41.6 %), salmonellosis (79.1 %), or campylobacteriosis (18.6 %). Owners mainly kept only egg-layers (78.4 %), and the median size flock was five egg-layers. Owners gave eggs to their relatives, occasionally or regularly, in 86.6 % of the cases. Contacts with other family poultry owners were frequent (68.9 %) and biosecurity practices were poorly implemented: 50 % of owners did not wash their hands systematically after visiting the flock and more than 60 % of owners did not wear specific shoes. Drawing from the survey data, five profiles of family poultry flocks were identified with multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. The profiles, based on flock characteristics and owners' practices and motivations, illustrate the heterogeneity of the backyard poultry sector: 1) urban poultry, 2) traditional poultry, 3) student poultry, 4) pet poultry and 5) hobby poultry. Urban poultry consisted of recently constituted (< 2 years old), small (< 3 birds) flocks of layers, and traditional poultry of older, medium-sized flocks belonging to retired and older people. These two profiles were characterized by limited contacts (direct or indirect) with other flocks and owners. Student poultry consisted of younger owners (<30 years old) with flocks over 5 years old. Pet poultry consisted of recently established, medium-size flocks of layers located in both rural or urban environments. Hobby poultry consisted of dedicated owners who breed and sell poultry and participate in exhibitions and poultry shows. Pet and hobby poultry profiles were characterized by greater knowledge of diseases and biosecurity practices, more bird movements, and reported more frequent clinical signs. The observation of different profiles can help target veterinary and public health education messages to prevent disease transmission in backyard poultry flocks in France.

Serosurvey of Avian Influenza Viruses (H5, H7, and H9) and Associated Risk Factors in Backyard Poultry Flocks of Lahore District, Pakistan

Rural poultry constitutes 56% of the total poultry population in Pakistan; however, epidemiological information about avian influenza viruses (AIVs) in backyard poultry flocks is lacking. A cross-sectional survey of villages of Lahore district was conducted from July 2009 to August 2009 using two-stage cluster sampling and probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling to estimate seroprevalence and its associated risk factors. A random selection of 35 clusters from 308 villages of Lahore were considered, and from each cluster, six chickens aged >2 months were selected. A total of 210 serum samples were collected and examined by the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test for specific antibodies against AIV subtypes H5, H7, and H9. Overall weighted seroprevalence for AIVs was 65.2% (95% CI: 55.6–74.8%), and for subtype H5, H7 & H9 was 6.9% (95% CI: 10.8–23.0%), 0% (95% CI: 0–1.7%), and 62.0% (95% CI: 52.2–71.8%) respectively. However, none of the samples were positive for H7. The average flock size was 17.3 birds, and the main purpose of keeping poultry was for eggs/meat (70.6%, 95% CI: 59.7–81.4). A majority of them were reared in a semi-caged system (83%, 95% CI: 74.5–91.3). Backyard birds were received from different sources, that is, purchased from the market or received as a gift from friends or any NGO, and were 5.7 times more likely to become avian influenza (AI) seropositive than those that were not exposed to these sources (CI 95%: 2.0–716.0). Backyard birds which were received from different sources, that is, purchased from the market or received from friends or any NGO, were 5.7 times more likely to become AI seropositive compared to those that were not (CI 95%: 2.5–18.7). To reduce the risk of AIV in Pakistan, continuous surveillance of backyard poultry would be needed.

Health surveillance of a potential bridge host: Pathogen exposure risks posed to avian populations augmented with captive-bred pheasants

Augmentation of wild populations with captive‐bred individuals presents an inherent risk of co‐introducing novel pathogens to naïve species, but it can be an important tool for supplementing small or declining populations. Game species used for human enterprise and recreation such as the ring‐necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) are commonly raised in captivity and released onto public and private wildlands as a method of augmenting naturalized pheasant populations. This study presents findings on pathogen exposure from three sources of serological data collected in California during 2014–2017 including (a) 71 pen‐reared pheasants sampled across seven game bird breeding farms, (b) six previously released pen‐reared pheasants captured at two study sites where wild pheasants occurred and (c) 79 wild pheasants captured across six study sites. In both pen‐reared and wild pheasants, antibodies were detected against haemorrhagic enteritis virus (HEV), infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT), infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), paramyxovirus type 1 (PMV‐1) and Pasteurella multocida (PM). Previously released pen‐reared pheasants were seropositive for HEV, ILT, and PM. Generalized linear mixed models accounting for intraclass correlation within groups indicated that pen‐reared pheasants were more than twice as likely to test positive for HEV antibodies. Necropsy and ancillary diagnostics were performed in addition to serological testing on 40 pen‐reared pheasants sampled from five of the seven farms. Pheasants from three of these farms tested positive by PCR for Siadenovirus, the causative agent of both haemorrhagic enteritis in turkeys and marble spleen disease of pheasants, which are serologically indistinguishable. Following necropsy, owners from the five farms were surveyed regarding husbandry and biosecurity practices. Farms ranged in size from 10,000 to more than 100,000 birds, two farms raised other game bird species on premises, and two farms used some form of vaccination. Biosecurity practices varied by farm, but the largest farm implemented the strictest practices.

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS, AND HUSBANDRY AND BIOSECURITY PRACTICES OF SMALL POULTRY FLOCKS IN ONTARIO, CANADA

As part of a two-year, disease surveillance project of small poultry flocks, owners of birds submitted for postmortem examination to the Animal Health Laboratory were asked to complete a questionnaire designed to gather information on the characteristics of the flock and its environment, how the flock was managed, and biosecurity measures used. A total of 153 unique questionnaires were received. Personal consumption of meat or eggs was the most common reason for owning a small flock (69.3%). Almost all owners (97.4%) reported having chickens on their property, while 21.6% had waterfowl, 15.7% had turkeys, and 15.7% had game birds. Nearly seventy percent (69.9%) of the flocks had some degree of outdoor access. For those with indoor access, the most common bedding material provided was soft wood shavings (70.2%). Kitchen waste or leftovers were offered to 65.3% of flocks, and well water was the most common source of drinking water (80.6%). For flocks with indoor access, dedicated shoes and clothes were used when entering or cleaning the coop by less than half of owners, and shoes were rarely disinfected before or after contact with the flock. Most owners (93.8%) reported washing their hands after contact with their birds, although only 48.3% reported washing their hands before contact. Among owners who sourced birds from a hatchery, only 36.8% indicated that the birds had been vaccinated and 21.1% were unsure if vaccines had been administered. Among owners using medication (60.5%), the use of antibiotics was common (60.9%). Overall, questionnaire responses describe a wide range of husbandry and biosecurity practices, often suboptimal, and point out the need for educational material for Ontario small flock owners.

Overview of Native Chicken Breeds in Italy: Conservation Status and Rearing Systems in Use

Simple Summary

The ongoing loss of domestic animal breeds around the world is occurring at an alarming rate. Thus, the registration and preservation of native breeds is of great importance. The aim of this study, which forms part of a conservation program, was to provide an overview of the conservation statuses of native Italian poultry breeds being reared by local breeders in Italy. The data collected by means of a census questionnaire demonstrate the low population sizes of these breeds in Italy and highlight the need for campaigns aimed at publicizing and promoting the benefits of native breeds with the goal of increasing population sizes. Identifying strategies to facilitate breeders’ access to pure breed birds is also essential, and would require collaborative efforts of university research centers, public entities, and breeders.

Abstract

The most reared species of farm animal around the world is the chicken. However, the intensification of livestock systems has led to a gradual increase in the concentration of a limited number of breeds, resulting in substantial erosion to the genetic pool. The initial step of an ‘animal conservation program’ entails establishing the actual conservation statuses of the breeds concerned in a defined area; in this case, in Italy. To this end, a survey of breeds was performed by means of a census questionnaire divided into two parts. The first part collected information on breeds, breeders, housing facilities, and management aspects, the results of which are presented here. The second part of the questionnaire regarded chicken products and their markets, and these data will be reported in a second paper. The breed status of six chicken breeds was shown to be exceptionally worrying, with total numbers ranging from just 18 to 186 birds. Population sizes exceeding 1000 birds was identified for just four breeds, the maximum being 3400. Some improvements in status were noted in relation to breeds which had been the subject of conservation efforts in the past. The two most common breeds reported are the Bionda Piemontese, a double-purpose breed, and the Livorno egg-laying hen. Collo Nudo Italiano, Millefiori Piemontese, Pollo Trentino, and Tirolese chicken breeds and the Castano Precoce turkey breed were not listed by breeders at all. The most reported turkey breeds are the Bronzato Comune and the Ermellinato di Rovigo. The population sizes of native Italian poultry breeds were shown to be generally poor. Italian poultry farmers and the population at large are largely ignorant about indigenous poultry breeds. Thus, promoting the virtues of Italian breeds would help their conservation by encouraging breeders to rear these birds and consumers to buy their products. The identification of strategies to facilitate access to pure breed birds is essential, and will require the collaboration of university research centers, public entities, and breeders. The results presented in this paper constitute the initial part of a more complex conservation program.

Assessment of veterinarians' engagement with backyard poultry and small-scale livestock operations in four western states

OBJECTIVE

To assess veterinarian engagement with owners of poultry and livestock in urban and peri-urban areas (UPAs) of 4 western states, to evaluate the knowledge and experience of veterinarians in UPAs for treating domestic poultry and livestock, and to identify barriers to the provision of veterinary services to backyard poultry and small-scale livestock operations.

SAMPLE

880 veterinarians in UPAs.

PROCEDURES

2,400 members of the veterinary medical associations of California, Colorado, Oregon, and Washington who worked in metropolitan areas with a population > 5,000 people were randomly selected and invited to participate in a needs assessment survey. Response data were analyzed with univariable logistic regression and multiple correspondence analysis.

RESULTS

880 (37%) invitees completed or partially completed the survey. Most respondents self-reported working in UPAs (686/825 [83%]) and companion animal only (n = 551) or predominant (211) practices. Although most (656/863 [76%]) respondents perceived an increase in backyard poultry and livestock in their practice areas, few were actively treating such animals primarily because of a lack of facilities, interest, or experience. Most respondents believed veterinarians have an important role in ensuring public health and preventing zoonotic disease.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Backyard poultry and livestock are increasing in popularity in UPAs of 4 western states, and veterinarians are needed to provide services to such animals. Further research and continuing education are necessary to encourage practitioners in UPAs to engage with owners of backyard poultry and livestock to ensure the health and welfare of those animals and guard public health. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;257:196-209).

The Structural Characteristics, Management, and Challenges of Backyard Poultry Farming in Residential Areas of Turkey

Simple Summary

Relatively little is known about backyard poultry flocks in urban areas in Turkey, their size and how they are managed. To address this knowledge gap, a semi-structured survey was conducted of backyard poultry owners in Turkey with regard to flock characteristics, management, biosecurity practices and the challenges of backyard poultry flocks. Data derived from 1094 respondents across Turkey showed that the majority of respondents owned small flocks with fewer than 50 birds. Most participants reported keeping poultry as food for family use and free-range coops were the most preferred type of housing. Keeping different poultry species together, which poses a significant biosecurity risk, was reported by 64% of owners. Internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases were the most common health problems in backyard flocks. Although there is a significant amount of backyard poultry farming activity in residential districts of Turkey, lack of regional regulations and animal theft were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health. A thorough understanding of the complexities of backyard poultry practices and the needs of backyard breeders will help authorities to design effective policies for the backyard poultry sector in Turkey.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to collect, for the first time, comprehensive information about the backyard poultry sector in Turkey. This included a profile of the poultry owners, flock characteristics, husbandry, housing conditions, the owners’ biosecurity measures and the challenges of backyard poultry farming in residential areas of Turkey. An online semi-structured survey was fully completed by 1094 respondents. The majority of respondents (91%) owned fewer than 50 birds and reported raising other poultry species besides chickens (64%). Most of the participants indicated that they kept poultry as food for family use (83%) and had been involved in chicken-raising activities for less than 10 years (86%). Free-range coops were the type of housing most preferred by the respondents (86%). However, there was a lack of awareness about poultry diseases and poultry health care conditions. Respondents that confirmed wild bird and rodent access to their feeders and drinkers reported high rates of internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases (p < 0.001). Lack of regional regulations (84%), animal theft (80%), lack of information on poultry management (79%), minimizing predation (75%), and the need for vaccination and veterinary services (73%) were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for improved biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health.

A Review of Pathogen Transmission at the Backyard Chicken-Wild Bird Interface

Habitat conversion and the expansion of domesticated, invasive species into native habitats are increasingly recognized as drivers of pathogen emergence at the agricultural-wildlife interface. Poultry agriculture is one of the largest subsets of this interface, and pathogen spillover events between backyard chickens and wild birds are becoming more commonly reported. Native wild bird species are under numerous anthropogenic pressures, but the risks of pathogen spillover from domestic chickens have been historically underappreciated as a threat to wild birds. Now that the backyard chicken industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world, it is imperative that the principles of biosecurity, specifically bioexclusion and biocontainment, are legislated and implemented. We reviewed the literature on spillover events of pathogens historically associated with poultry into wild birds. We also reviewed the reasons for biosecurity failures in backyard flocks that lead to those spillover events and provide recommendations for current and future backyard flock owners.

Experimental Infection and Transmission of Newcastle Disease Vaccine Virus in Four Wild Passerines

Our prior work has shown that live poultry vaccines have been intermittently isolated from wild birds sampled during field surveillance studies for Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Thus, we experimentally investigated the susceptibility of four native agriculturally associated wild bird species to the NDV LaSota vaccine and evaluated the shedding dynamics, potential transmission from chickens, and humoral antibody responses. To test susceptibility, we inoculated wild-caught, immunologically NDV-naïve house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus; n = 16), brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater; n = 9), northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis; n = 6), and American goldfinches (Spinus tristis; n = 12) with 0.1 ml (10^6.7 mean embryo infectious doses [EID_50/ml]) of NDV LaSota vaccine via the oculo-nasal route. To test transmission between chickens and wild birds, adult specific-pathogen-free white leghorn chickens were inoculated similarly and cohoused in separate isolators with two to five wild birds of the species listed above. This design resulted in three treatments: wild bird direct inoculation (five groups) and wild bird exposure to one (two groups) or two inoculated chickens (six groups), respectively. Blood and oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected before and after infection with the live vaccine. All wild birds that were directly inoculated with the LaSota vaccine shed virus as demonstrated by virus isolation (VI). Cardinals were the most susceptible species based on shedding viruses from 1 to 11 days postinoculation (dpi) with titers up to 10^4.9 EID₅₀/ml. Although LaSota viruses were shed by all inoculated chickens and were present in the drinking water, most noninoculated wild birds cohoused with these chickens remained uninfected for 14 days as evidenced by VI. However, one American goldfinch tested positive for vaccine transmission by VI at 7 dpi and one house finch tested positive for vaccine transmission by real-time reverse-transcription PCR at 13 dpi. Only one directly inoculated cowbird (out of three) and two cardinals (out of two) developed NDV-specific hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers of 16, 16, and 128, respectively. No clinical signs were detected in the chickens or the wild birds postinoculation.

Biochemical Reference Intervals for Backyard Hens

Keeping backyard poultry has become increasingly popular in urban and suburban households. With this rise in popularity comes an increased need for veterinarians who are willing to serve this demographic and a need for lab reference intervals that capture the range of clinically healthy backyard hens. We developed blood chemistry reference intervals for birds in backyard chicken flocks. Between June and August 2016, 133 adult, actively laying hens from 34 different flocks in Western Washington were sampled via medial metatarsal venipuncture. Whole heparinized blood was analyzed using a VetScan VS2 with Avian/Reptilian Profile Plus reagent rotors. Packed cell volume was determined via centrifugation of microhematocrit tubes. Reference intervals were calculated by Reference Value Advisor V2.1 software using the nonparametric method. Seven currently published reference intervals for the Gallus gallus domesticus could not be validated for use in backyard hens, according to the guidelines established by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Of flock owners who participated in the study, 47% reported they would consider paying for a blood test if a veterinarian thought it would be beneficial.

Backyard poultry production in Chile: animal health management and contribution to food access in an upper middle-income country

Backyard production systems (BPS) that involve poultry are a good way to improve food security and poverty alleviation. Few studies have been carried out to quantify the contribution of poultry production to these households and the constraints they might face if a priority animal disease enters these systems. This study aims to characterize the poultry-rearing BPS in central Chile and to identify socio-economic factors associated to households' consumption of poultry. Data was collected from 384 BPS through a face-to-face semi-structured questionnaire. Value chain framework associated with BPS poultry rearing and cash flow analysis of BPS was done to identify the inputs/outputs of the system and to know the profitability of the system. Multiple linear regression was performed to identify the BPS and household factors associated to poultry consumption. The results of this study suggest that BPS in central Chile have biosecurity deficiencies such as: lack of confinement, lack of veterinary assistance and incorrect handling of dead animals. Cash flow analysis indicated that 62% of the BPS had a positive balance from production. Distance to closest market and per capita income were factors associated to poultry value to farmers. Different factors were significant predictors of household poultry consumption. Positive predictors of consumption were identified as: (i) older owners, (ii) higher transportation price to closest market, (iii) larger flock size (iv) birds raised by women and (v) owning a car. On the contrary, (i) higher per capita income and (ii) bigger household size predicted a reduction in consumption. The results indicate the importance of BPS to low-income families and those living in remote areas while also highlighting the vulnerability of these systems to disease risks.

Small Poultry Flocks in Alberta: Demographics and Practices

The distribution, composition, and management characteristics of small "backyard" poultry flocks may have important implications in the spread of both avian diseases and zoonoses of public health concern. Although the prevalence of small poultry flocks has increased in Alberta, Canada, in recent years, there is minimal demographic information available for these populations. To gain initial epidemiologic insight into this growing population and potential areas of risk, a survey was conducted to characterize the sector. Information on flock demographics and bird health, as well as production and biosecurity practices, were gathered and analyzed from 206 surveys, representing respondents from 43 counties. These results revealed great diversity of both owners and flocks, characterized by wide variations in flock sizes and composition. Laying hens were the most commonly reported type of bird (93.4%), followed by ducks and geese (35.3%), turkeys, (33.8%), and broiler chickens (33.1%). Notably, 58.1% of owners reported having more than one type of bird in their flock, with many owners never, or only sometimes, separating flocks based on species or purpose. Personal consumption (81.8%) and sale of eggs (48.2%) were the most frequently cited purposes for owning a flock. Our findings suggest that owners in Alberta are predominantly new to production; most (73.1%) have kept birds for less than 5 yr and 25.6% for less than 1 yr. Flock health parameters revealed inconsistent use of medical interventions, such as vaccinations, treatments, and veterinary consultation. Data on the sourcing, housing, and movement of birds, as well as movement of people and visitors, reveal substantial potential for contact to occur directly and indirectly between flocks and humans. Additionally, basic husbandry and biosecurity practices were found to be inconsistent and often inadequate, highlighting important gaps and opportunities to improve the health of Alberta's small poultry flocks and mitigate risks to public health. These quantitative and qualitative results provide a baseline characterization of the sector and identify risks and challenges that may serve to inform the development and delivery of future study and interventions.

The First Detection of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in New Zealand

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) has been considered exotic to New Zealand and thus, any samples from poultry suspected of ORT infection are submitted as part of an exotic disease investigation managed by Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) and subjected to standardized test protocols carried out in the physical containment level 3+ laboratory at MPI's Animal Health Laboratory (AHL). All previous exotic disease investigations concerning ORT produced negative results by bacterial culture and conventional PCR. Following the recent introduction of a real-time PCR for ORT at the AHL, several tracheal wash fluids from backyard chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ) were tested positive. This identification constituted the first detection of ORT in New Zealand poultry. As a result, a second premise was investigated with further samples testing positive for ORT by molecular assays. This paper describes the two exotic disease investigations associated with the first detection of ORT in New Zealand poultry and its implications.

Diversity and Prevalence of Ectoparasites on Backyard Chicken Flocks in California

Peridomestic ("backyard") chicken flocks are gaining popularity in the developed world (e.g., North America or Europe), yet little is known regarding prevalence or severity of their ectoparasites. Therefore, five birds on each of 20 properties throughout southern California were surveyed in summer for on-host (permanent) and off-host dwelling (temporary) ectoparasites. Only four premises (20%) were entirely free of ectoparasites. In declining order of prevalence (% of premises), permanent ectoparasites included six chicken louse species: Menacanthus stramineus (Nitzsch) (50%), Goniocotes gallinae (De Geer) (35%), Lipeurus caponis (L.) (20%), Menopon gallinae (L.) (15%), Menacanthus cornutus (Schömmer) (5%), and Cuclotogaster heterographus (Nitzsch) (5%). Only one flea species, Echidnophaga gallinacea (Westwood) (20%), was found. Three parasitic mite species were observed: Ornithonyssus sylviarum (Canestrini & Fanzago) (15%), Knemidocoptes mutans (Robin & Lanquetin) (10%), and Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer) (5%). Many infestations consisted of a few to a dozen individuals per bird, but M. stramineus, G. gallinae, M. cornutus, and E. gallinacea were abundant (dozens to hundreds of individuals) on some birds, and damage by K. mutans was severe on two premises. Off-host dwelling ectoparasites were rare (D. gallinae) or absent (Cimex lectularius L., Argasidae). Parasite diversity in peridomestic flocks greatly exceeds that is routinely observed on commercial chicken flocks and highlights a need for increased biosecurity and development of ectoparasite control options for homeowners.

Zoonotic Public Health Hazards in Backyard Chickens

Backyard poultry has become increasingly popular in industrialized countries. In addition to keeping chickens for eggs and meat, owners often treat the birds as pets. However, several pathogenic enteric bacteria have the potential for zoonotic transmission from poultry to humans but very little is known about the occurrence of zoonotic pathogens in backyard flocks. The occurrence and the antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes and enteropathogenic Yersinia spp. was studied in 51 voluntary backyard chicken farms in Finland during October 2012 and January 2013. Campylobacter isolates were further characterized by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and the occurrence of ESBL/AmpC-producing E. coli was investigated. The findings from this study indicate that backyard chickens are a reservoir of Campylobacter jejuni strains and a potential source of C. jejuni infection for humans. Backyard chickens can also carry L. monocytogenes, although their role as a primary reservoir is questionable. Campylobacter coli, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Salmonella enterica were only found sporadically in the faecal and environmental samples of backyard poultry in Finland. No Yersinia enterocolitica carrying the virulence plasmid was isolated. All pathogens were highly susceptible to most of the antimicrobials studied. Only a few AmpC- and no ESBL-producing E. coli were found.

Evaluation of egg production after adoption of biosecurity strategies by backyard poultry farmers in West Bengal

AIM

On the basis of identified source of major bacterial infections at four agro-climatic zones in West Bengal the cost-effective biosecurity strategy was formulated for backyard poultry farmers. The aim of the present study was to assess the adoption. So, the study was aimed to detect the adoption level of the formulated biosecurity strategy to mitigate the Salmonella and Escherichia coliweek post-hatch period chicks were contamination level in the sources and its correlation with egg production in West Bengal.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A questionnaire was prepared querying regarding the biosecurity measures presently followed by the farmers, if any and egg production of their birds. Subsequent to the interview the formulated biosecurity strategy was conveyed. After 3 months, the interview with the same questionnaire was conducted to the same farmers to detect their adoption level.

RESULTS

The change in practices were noted in certain parameters which differs significantly (p<0.01 or p<0.05). As a consequence, the average egg production/flock was increased in 3 months after adoption of the strategy (618.2±37.77/flock) in comparison to last 3 months average before adoption of the strategy (495.3±30.00/flock) which also differs significantly (p<0.01).

CONCLUSION

The present study detected the implementation of the biosecurity strategy in backyard poultry farming in West Bengal can substantially benefit the farmers in terms of increased egg production.

Questionnaire study and postmortem findings in backyard chicken flocks in Finland

Background

Although modern commercial poultry production today is based on large farms and intensive husbandry, keeping backyard poultry has regained popularity in industrialized countries. However, the health status of backyard flocks is still relatively poorly documented. A questionnaire was sent to the owners of 376 backyard poultry flocks (<500 birds) in order to study health management procedures and characterize backyard poultry populations in Finland. Information was also collected on the postmortem findings from non-commercial flocks using necropsy data from the Finnish Food Safety Authority (Evira).

Results

Backyard flocks in Finland are small in size (<50 birds), comprising mainly chickens. Based on the results of the questionnaire, the health of such flocks is good, mortality low and vaccinations are not commonly used. Most of the flocks were registered in the national poultry register. The standard biosecurity practices are not generally applied and contact with wild birds, pets and farm animals is frequent, which can make the flocks more prone to infectious diseases. We conducted an 11-year retrospective study of the postmortem necropsy findings of the Evira in order to document the diseases, which caused mortality in backyard chickens in Finland. Necropsy was performed on a total of 132 non-commercial laying hens during 2000 – 2011. The most common postmortem findings were Marek’s disease (27%) and colibacillosis (17%).

Conclusions

This study is the first to report data on characteristics of and management practices for backyard chicken flocks in Finland. Close connections with commercial flocks are rare and farms are usually distantly located suggesting that the risk that these backyard flocks pose to commercial poultry is low.

Backyard chickens in the United States: a survey of flock owners

Although it has become increasingly popular to keep backyard chickens in the United States, few studies have provided information about these flocks. An online survey of backyard chicken owners was conducted, advertised through Master Gardeners' websites, social platforms, and other sites. The survey had 56 questions about flock history, husbandry, health care, and owner attitudes and demographics. Surveys received (n = 1,487) came almost equally from urban, suburban, and rural areas. Most (71%) respondents owned fewer than 10 chickens and had kept chickens for less than 5 yr (70%). Major reasons for keeping chickens were as food for home use (95%), gardening partners (63%), pets (57%), or a combination of these. Rural respondents had larger flocks (P ≤ 0.001) and were more likely to keep chickens as a source of income or for show (P ≤ 0.001) than urban and suburban respondents. Owners thought that eggs/meat from their chickens were more nutritious (86%), safer to consume (84%), and tasted better (95%) than store-bought products, and also that the health and welfare of their chickens was better (95%) than on commercial farms. The majority (59%) indicated no flock health problems in the last 12 mo. However, there was a lack of awareness about some poultry health conditions. Many knew either little or nothing about exotic Newcastle or Marek's disease, and most (61%) did not vaccinate against Marek's. Respondents wanted to learn more about various flock management topics, especially how to detect (64%) and treat (66%) health problems. The Internet was the main source of information (87%) used by backyard flock owners, followed by books/magazines (62%) and feed stores (40%). Minimizing predation was the most cited challenge (49%), followed by providing adequate feed at low cost (28%), dealing with soil management (25%), and complying with zoning regulations (23%). The evidence obtained from this survey will help to determine what information and resources are needed to maintain good biosecurity and improve the health and welfare of backyard flocks.

Backyard poultry: legislation, zoonoses and disease prevention

In law, backyard poultry are "food-producing animals" and "farmed animals" and are subject to regulations regarding welfare, prescribing, banned procedures, disposal of carcases, feeding bans, notifiable diseases and disease surveillance in addition to those applying to most other pets. Many owners and some veterinary surgeons are unclear about the requirements of these regulations. Backyard poultry are also associated with some different zoonotic disease risks to mammalian pets. Because a high proportion of poultry morbidity and mortality relates to infectious diseases, the health of backyard poultry is amenable to improvement through basic husbandry, biosecurity, hygiene and preventive medicine measures that can be incorporated into a simple "flock-health plan". This article reviews these topics.

Using quantitative disease dynamics as a tool for guiding response to avian influenza in poultry in the United States of America

Wild birds are the primary source of genetic diversity for influenza A viruses that eventually emerge in poultry and humans. Much progress has been made in the descriptive ecology of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), but contributions are less evident from quantitative studies (e.g., those including disease dynamic models). Transmission between host species, individuals and flocks has not been measured with sufficient accuracy to allow robust quantitative evaluation of alternate control protocols. We focused on the United States of America (USA) as a case study for determining the state of our quantitative knowledge of potential AIV emergence processes from wild hosts to poultry. We identified priorities for quantitative research that would build on existing tools for responding to AIV in poultry and concluded that the following knowledge gaps can be addressed with current empirical data: (1) quantification of the spatio-temporal relationships between AIV prevalence in wild hosts and poultry populations, (2) understanding how the structure of different poultry sectors impacts within-flock transmission, (3) determining mechanisms and rates of between-farm spread, and (4) validating current policy-decision tools with data. The modeling studies we recommend will improve our mechanistic understanding of potential AIV transmission patterns in USA poultry, leading to improved measures of accuracy and reduced uncertainty when evaluating alternative control strategies.

Backyard chicken keeping in the Greater London Urban Area: welfare status, biosecurity and disease control issues

1. The aim of the study was to collect baseline data on welfare, biosecurity and diseases of backyard chickens kept in the Greater London Urban Area (GLUA), United Kingdom (UK). 2. A total of 65 backyard chicken flock-keepers were recruited from May to July 2010 through adverts on websites, at City farms, veterinary practices and pet feed stores and surveyed by means of a questionnaire. A total of 30 responses were suitable for analysis. 3. Information on keepers' and flocks' characteristics, housing and husbandry practices and owners' knowledge of health problems in chickens and zoonotic diseases was collected. A welfare assessment protocol was developed and the flocks assessed accordingly. 4. Results showed that chickens were generally provided with living conditions that allowed them to perform their natural behaviours. 5. Most of the flock owners did not comply with the regulations of the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) on the feeding of catering waste. 6. Disease prevention measures such as vaccination and biosecurity, including limiting the access of human visitors, wild birds and rodents to the flocks were rare. 7. A lack of avian and zoonotic disease knowledge and awareness among the owners has implications for disease control and highlights the need for improved communication between owners, authorities and veterinarians.

Biosecurity measures for backyard poultry in developing countries: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Poultry represents an important sector in animal production, with backyard flocks representing a huge majority, especially in the developing countries. In these countries, villagers raise poultry to meet household food demands and as additional sources of incomes. Backyard production methods imply low biosecurity measures and high risk of infectious diseases, such as Newcastle disease or zoonosis such as Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI).We reviewed literature on biosecurity practices for prevention of infectious diseases, and published recommendations for backyard poultry and assessed evidence of their impact and feasibility, particularly in developing countries. Documents were sourced from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) website, and from Pubmed and Google databases.

RESULTS

A total of 62 peer-reviewed and non-referred documents were found, most of which were published recently (after 2004) and focused on HPAI/H5N1-related biosecurity measures (64%). Recommendations addressed measures for flock management, feed and water management, poultry trade and stock change, poultry health management and the risk to humans. Only one general guideline was found for backyard poultry-related biosecurity; the other documents were drawn up for specific developing settings and only engaged their authors (e.g. consultants). These national guidelines written by consultants generated recommendations regarding measures derived from the highest standards of commercial poultry production. Although biosecurity principles of isolation and containment are described in most documents, only a few documents were found on the impact of measures in family poultry settings and none gave any evidence of their feasibility and effectiveness for backyard poultry.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the persistent threat posed by HPAI/H5N1 to humans in developing countries, our findings highlight the importance of encouraging applied research toward identifying sustained and adapted biosecurity measures for smallholder poultry flocks in low-income countries.

Raising chickens in city backyards: the public health role

There is increasing interest in raising chickens in urban settings across North America. Current regulations on backyard chickens vary by jurisdiction due to concerns about perceived health threats. Proposed negative impacts on public health and community well-being include infectious diseases acquired through rearing practices or consumption of eggs, inappropriate waste management, interaction with pests and predators and nuisance factors such as noise and odour. Proposed benefits are derived largely from the human-animal bond and from feelings of autonomy over food selection. The importance or validity of claims of positive and negative effects cannot be supported by literature specific to the urban agriculture context. Public health practitioners might approach this issue in a manner analogous to concerns over keeping domestic pets.

Environmental and demographic determinants of avian influenza viruses in waterfowl across the contiguous United States

Outbreaks of avian influenza in North American poultry have been linked to wild waterfowl. A first step towards understanding where and when avian influenza viruses might emerge from North American waterfowl is to identify environmental and demographic determinants of infection in their populations. Laboratory studies indicate water temperature as one determinant of environmental viral persistence and we explored this hypothesis at the landscape scale. We also hypothesized that the interval apparent prevalence in ducks within a local watershed during the overwintering season would influence infection probabilities during the following breeding season within the same local watershed. Using avian influenza virus surveillance data collected from 19,965 wild waterfowl across the contiguous United States between October 2006 and September 2009 We fit Logistic regression models relating the infection status of individual birds sampled on their breeding grounds to demographic characteristics, temperature, and interval apparent prevalence during the preceding overwintering season at the local watershed scale. We found strong support for sex, age, and species differences in the probability an individual duck tested positive for avian influenza virus. In addition, we found that for every seven days the local minimum temperature fell below zero, the chance an individual would test positive for avian influenza virus increased by 5.9 percent. We also found a twelve percent increase in the chance an individual would test positive during the breeding season for every ten percent increase in the interval apparent prevalence during the prior overwintering season. These results suggest that viral deposition in water and sub-freezing temperatures during the overwintering season may act as determinants of individual level infection risk during the subsequent breeding season. Our findings have implications for future surveillance activities in waterfowl and domestic poultry populations. Further study is needed to identify how these drivers might interact with other host-specific infection determinants, such as species phylogeny, immunological status, and behavioral characteristics.

Measuring the costs of biosecurity on poultry farms: a case study in broiler production in Finland

Background

Farm-level biosecurity provides the foundation for biosecurity along the entire production chain. Many risk management practices are constantly in place, regardless of whether there is a disease outbreak or not. Nonetheless, the farm-level costs of preventive biosecurity have rarely been assessed. We examined the costs incurred by preventive biosecurity for Finnish poultry farms.

Methods

We used a semi-structured phone interview and obtained results from 17 broiler producers and from 5 hatching egg producers, corresponding to about 10% of all producers in Finland.

Results

Our results indicate that the average cost of biosecurity is some 3.55 eurocent per bird for broiler producers (0.10 eurocent per bird per rearing day) and 75.7 eurocent per bird for hatching egg producers (0.27 eurocent per bird per rearing day). For a batch of 75,000 broilers, the total cost would be €2,700. The total costs per bird are dependent on the annual number of birds: the higher the number of birds, the lower the cost per bird. This impact is primarily due to decreasing labour costs rather than direct monetary costs. Larger farms seem to utilise less labour per bird for biosecurity actions. There are also differences relating to the processor with which the producer is associated, as well as to the gender of the producer, with female producers investing more in biosecurity. Bird density was found to be positively related to the labour costs of biosecurity. This suggests that when the bird density is higher, greater labour resources need to be invested in their health and welfare and hence disease prevention. The use of coccidiostats as a preventive measure to control coccidiosis was found to have the largest cost variance between the producers, contributing to the direct costs.

Conclusions

The redesign of cost-sharing in animal diseases is currently ongoing in the European Union. Before we can assert how the risk should be shared or resort to the 'polluter pays' principle, we need to understand how the costs are currently distributed. The ongoing study contributes towards understanding these issues. The next challenge is to link the costs of preventive biosecurity to the benefits thus acquired.

Biosecurity and bird movement practices in upland game bird facilities in the United States

Since 1996, the emergence of Asian-origin highly pathogenic avian influenza subtype H5N1 has spurred great concern for the global poultry industry. In the United States, there is concern over the potential of a foreign avian disease incursion into the country. Noncommercial poultry operations, such as upland game bird facilities in the United States, may serve as a potential source of avian disease introduction to other bird populations including the commercial poultry industry, backyard flocks, or wildlife. In order to evaluate how to prevent disease transmission from these facilities to other populations, we examined biosecurity practices and bird movement within the upland game bird industry in the United States. Persons that held a current permit to keep, breed, or release upland game birds were surveyed for information on biosecurity practices, flock and release environments, and bird movement parameters. Biosecurity practices vary greatly among permit holders. Many facilities allow for interaction between wild birds and pen-reared birds, and there is regular long-distance movement of live adult birds among facilities. Results suggest that upland game bird facilities should be targeted for biosecurity education and disease surveillance efforts.

How backyard poultry flocks influence the effort required to curtail avian influenza epidemics in commercial poultry flocks

This paper summarizes the evidence that the contribution of backyard poultry flocks to the on-going transmission dynamics of an avian influenza epidemic in commercial flocks is modest at best. Nevertheless, while disease control strategies need not involve the backyard flocks, an analysis of the contribution of each element of the next generation matrix to the basic reproduction number indicates that models which ignores the contribution of backyard flocks in estimating the effort required of strategies focused one host type (e.g. commercial flocks only) necessarily underestimate the level of effort to an extent that may matter to policy makers.

Human-bird interactions in the United States upland gamebird industry and the potential for zoonotic disease transmission

Since 1997, highly pathogenic avian influenza subtype H5N1 has emerged to cause severe disease in humans in over 15 countries. Humans who have regular contact with poultry or wild birds may be at greater risk of infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza and other zoonotic avian diseases. To develop preventative measures for transmission of avian influenza to high-risk human populations in the United States, we examined human-bird interactions in the upland gamebird industry. Upland gamebird permit holders were surveyed for information on human-bird contact, biosecurity practices, facility management practices, flock/release environment, and bird health. Results suggest that some upland gamebird facilities provide an environment for extensive and intimate human-bird interaction such that humans associated with these facilities may be at greater risk for zoonotic disease transmission.