Control of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia: knowledge, attitudes, perceptions and practices in Narok district of Kenya

Prioritization of livestock diseases by pastoralists in Oloitoktok Sub County, Kajiado County, Kenya

INTRODUCTION

Livestock diseases are a big challenge for the livelihood of pastoralists in sub-Saharan Africa because they reduce livestock productivity and increase mortality. Based on the literature available there is limited understanding on how pastoralists prioritize these diseases in the context of their culture, ecosystems and livelihoods. A study was conducted to provide insights on lay prioritization of animal diseases by pastoralists in Kenya.

METHODOLOGY

A qualitative study was undertaken between March and July 2021. Thirty in-depth interviews and six focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with community members to explore community attitudes on livestock diseases prioritization. Male and female livestock keepers were purposively selected and interviewed and they were all long-term residents of the area. Fourteen key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted with professionals from different key sectors to provide detailed stakeholder perspectives on livestock diseases. The interviews were analyzed thematically using the QSR Nvivo software to identify the emerging themes related to the study objectives.

RESULTS

The pastoralists prioritized livestock diseases based on effect on their economic wellbeing, cultural values and utilization of ecosystem services. There were gender variabilities in how diseases were prioritized among the pastoralists. Men cited high priority diseases as foot and mouth disease and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia due to their regular occurrence and effect on livelihood. Notably, women regarded coenuruses as very important because it affected sheep and goats with a high mortality rate and lumpy skin disease because it rendered the meat from the carcasses inedible. Malignant catarrhal fever and trypanosomiasis were noted as some of the common diseases in the livestock-wildlife interface but not cited as priority diseases. Challenges related to disease control in pastoralist contexts exist including limited access to livestock treatment services, inadequate information on disease impact and complex environmental factors.

CONCLUSION

This study sheds light on the body of knowledge in Kenya regarding livestock diseases and their prioritization by livestock keepers. This could aid in the development of a common disease control framework and prioritization at the local level which would take into consideration the dynamic socio-cultural, ecological, livelihood and economic contexts of the communities.

Factors influencing usage of antimicrobial drugs among pastoralists in Kenya

Agricultural use of antimicrobials in food animal production may contribute to the global emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). However, considerable gaps exist in research on the use of antimicrobial drugs (AMDs) in food animals in small-scale production systems in low- and middle-income countries, despite the minimal regulation of antimicrobials in such regions. The aim of this study was to identify factors that may influence AMD use in livestock among pastoral communities in Kenya. We collected data related to household and herd demographics, herd health, and herd management from 55 households in the Maasai Mara ecosystem, Kenya, between 2018 and 2019. We used multi-model logistic regression inference (supervised machine learning) to ascertain trends in AMD use within these households. AMD use in cattle was significantly associated with AMD use in sheep and goats (p = 0.05), implying that decisions regarding AMD use in cattle or sheep and goats were interdependent. AMD use in sheep and goats was negatively associated with vaccination against the foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus in cattle (OR = 0.06, 95% CI 0.01-0.67, p = 0.02). Less AMD use was observed for vaccine-preventable diseases like contagious ecthyma when households had access to state veterinarians (OR = 0.06, p = 0.05, 95% CI 0.004-0.96). Overall, decisions to use AMDs were associated with vaccine usage, occurrence of respiratory diseases, and access to animal health advice. This hypothesis-generating study suggests that applying community-centric methods may be necessary to understand the use of AMDs in pastoral communities.

A participatory epidemiological study of major cattle diseases amongst Maasai pastoralists living in wildlife-livestock interfaces in Maasai Mara, Kenya

Livestock-wildlife interactions promote the transmission of a wide range of infectious diseases that constraint livestock production. We used a participatory appraisal approach to find out and rank infectious diseases of concern to pastoralists in a zone of intense wildlife-livestock interaction and another zone with limited interactions. Four villages were selected purposively in areas with intensive cattle-wildlife interactions (zone 1), and another two in areas with low to moderate cattle-wildlife interactions (zone 2). Data were collected in focus group discussions (FGDs) using participatory epidemiological methods (PE); each group had 8-13 participants. Results of impact matrix scoring from all sites indicated that malignant catarrhal fever (MCF), anthrax, foot and mouth disease (FMD), contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), east coast fever (ECF) and African animal trypanosomiasis (ATT), in decreasing order, had the highest impact on livestock production. A Kruskal-Wallis test revealed a significant difference in FMD annual prevalence between cattle age groups (p < 0.001) and was the highest in animals > 4 years (median score of 32.5, range, 10-50). FMD had the highest impact on milk production, but based on veterinary costs (treatment costs), it was ranked second to CBPP. The study provides information on disease priorities that occur in the target zones in Mara ecosystem and which the local pastoralists must consider when accessing key ecosystem services such as water and pasture.

Information sharing and willingness-to-pay for CBPP vaccine in rural Kenya

The study estimates cattle owners' willingness-to-pay (WTP) for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) vaccine in Samburu county, Kenya. Of particular policy relevance, the study presents findings on WTP for i) improved access to vaccines and ii) timely access to disease-risk information. The mean price for a CBPP vaccine was estimated at KES 66 (USD 0.64). This price relates to a CBPP vaccine that requires a 1.8 h commute, cattle owners' receipt of timely information that the CBPP disease risk is low-moderate and the vaccine lowers the risk of either tail-drop or post-vaccine abortion. The conditional WTP for mean travel duration and high-risk information are similar at KES 53.9 and KES 51.5. The marginal effect on demand for a 1 h additional travel duration and provision of CBPP disease risk information was estimated as a 1.5 per cent reduction and 2.3 increase. The results of this study indicate that cattle owners value greater levels of knowledge concerning the changing risk profile of CBPP in their community and improved access to CBPP vaccination services. Enhanced engagement with cattle owners concerning CBPP would likely result in a greater utilisation of available CBPP vaccines, conditional on the perceived CBPP disease risk.

Perceptions, circumstances and motivators affecting the implementation of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia control programmes in Nigerian Fulani pastoral herds

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an infectious disease of cattle which substantially contributes to poor productivity of the sub-Saharan pastoral livestock sector. In Nigeria and most of the West African countries, limited public funding for CBPP control have necessitated farmers to bear a bigger burden of managing the disease. Understanding the factors influencing decision of farmers to implement disease control programmes is therefore a key element in informing future policies aimed at improving CBPP management. This study explored perceptions of Nigerian Fulani pastoral herdsmen on the responsibility for cattle healthcare, and identified their circumstances and motivations in implementing CBPP management programmes. Field data were collected from 191 pastoral farmers using a semi-structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire. The results indicated that younger farmers were more likely than their older counterpart to accept the responsibility for CBPP management (p<0.01). This may signal future prospects for improved CBPP management where upcoming farmers could be encouraged to implement CBPP control programmes and uphold the costs. 13.6% of the farmers had no intention of implementing any CBPP control programme on farm, while 81.2% either had a positive intention or implemented at least one programme aimed at controlling CBPP. Intention to implement CBPP control programmes was significantly associated with educational attainment of farmers (p<0.01) and their access to CBPP control services offered by trained veterinarians (p<0.01). Farmers with negative attitudes towards implementing CBPP control programmes could be motivated to change their perspectives by advice from trusted sources and improved access to veterinary services. Conversely, farmers with positive attitudes towards implementing CBPP control programmes were more likely to be motivated by affordable veterinary services and advocacy on specific CBPP control programmes. As such, the former group of farmers will be more likely to benefit from programmes which focus on providing credible information from trusted sources, such as extension agents, veterinarians or successful peers. On the contrary, interventions targeting the latter group of farmers should prioritize cost-effective delivery of improved CBPP control technologies.

The intention of North-Western Ethiopian dairy farmers to control mastitis

Understanding the intentions of dairy farmers towards mastitis control is important to design effective udder health control programs. We used the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to explore the intentions of North-Western Ethiopian dairy farmers towards implementing non-specified mastitis control measures (nsMCMs) and towards implementing 4 specific MCMs. Face to face interviews were held with 134 dairy farmers to study associations between their intentions and any of three factors (attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control) that, according to the TPB, determine intentions. The majority of the farmers (93%) had a positive intention to implement nsMCMs, whereas a smaller majority of farmers had the intention to implement the specific MCMs to improve udder cleaning (87%), to improve stall hygiene (78%), to improve feeding of cows (76%), and to perform foremilk stripping (74%). Farmers had a more positive attitude, but lower subjective norm and lower perceived behavioural control towards implementing nsMCMs compared with implementing most specific MCMs, although the subjective norms for stall hygiene and perceived behavioural control for improving feeding of cows were also low. Attitude was positively associated with intentions to implement nsMCMs, to improve cleaning of the udders, to improve stall hygiene and to implement foremilk stripping. Both the intention to improve udder cleaning and to implement foremilk stripping, were positively associated to subjective norms towards these MCMs. Our data can help tailor intervention programs aiming to increase the intention of Ethiopian dairy farmers to implement MCMs and thus to improve udder health in this country. We show that such programs should primarily focus on changing attitude and secondarily on improving the farmers’ subjective norms.

Seroprevalence and Distribution of Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia in Ethiopia: Update and Critical Analysis of 20 Years (1996-2016) Reports

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), infectious and highly contagious diseases of cattle in Africa, is the only bacterial disease in the OIE list A diseases. This severe respiratory disease of cattle is the second most important transboundary animal disease in Africa after rinderpest. CBPP is caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC (small colony bovine biotype) and it is endemic disease in many African countries including Ethiopia. This paper systematically reviews prevalence report at herd and individual animal level for the last 20 years (1996-2016) with main aim of making comprehensive document regarding the seroprevalence and distribution of CBPP in Ethiopia. The paper is therefore helpful in knowing the past and current disease status and also to forecast the future and possible prevention option in the country. So far, the seroprevalence that ranges from 0.4 to 96% was reported from different export quarantine centers and production areas in Ethiopia. The reported seroprevalence is significantly associated with different agro-ecology of the country and the highest was reported from lowland in which 40% of livestock population was kept. The recent seroprevalence studies report from different areas of the country also indicated as CBPP is posing a major threat to cattle production in many parts of the country, thereby causing considerable economic losses through morbidity and mortality. This disease also causes restriction on the trade of animals and animal products internationally and accounts for a loss of over 8.96 million US dollars per year in Ethiopian situation. Thus, a great attention should be given both at production areas and the quarantine stations as its occurrence may affect the export earnings of the country, thereby threatening the livelihood of pastoralists and national economy of the country.

Molecular detection of Nigerian field isolates of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides as causative agents of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a highly contagious respiratory disease affecting cattle and is widely distributed in the sub-Saharan Africa. The objective of this study was to detect Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides (Mmm) the causative agent of CBPP from 90 cattle at slaughter using polymerase chain reaction-Restriction fragment length polymorphism. In this study, 450 samples suggestive of CBPP in Maiduguri, Yola and Gombe township abattoirs were processed according to standard protocols. The isolation rate was found to be 3.33% and percentage of identification with PCR-RFLP yielded 1.56%. Subsequently, QIAxcel revealed molecular size of 574 bp for Mycoplasma mycoides subcluster. Further analysis of PCR amplicons with restriction digestion, confirmed the presence of Mmm 16 S rRNA of CAP 21 genomic region with molecular sizes of 180 bp and 380 bp. Thus, the 380 bp fragments delineated Mmm from Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri. Three isolates (BL5, BL6 and AL1) were from lungs and four from pleural fluids (APF2, APF8A, APF8B and APF9) were isolated and identified, while a vaccine strain T1/44 was re-detected along with the field isolates. No sample from Gombe had Mmm. In conclusion, the findings of this study have detected the presence of Mmm as causative agent of CBPP. Measures such as surveillance, quarantine and vaccination are hereby recommended for the control of CBPP in Nigeria.

Serological prevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in agro-pastoral areas of Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), an infection of cattle caused by the small colony biotype of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides (MmmSC), is a significant constraint to improved pastoral cattle productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. This cross-sectional study was aimed to estimate serological prevalence of CBPP and identify risk factors for herd sero-positivity within agro-pastoral areas of Nigeria.

RESULTS

The herd level prevalence of CBPP was 54.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) = 47.7-62.0), and proportion of animals with detectable MmmSC monoclonal antibody was 30.2% (95% CI = 26.3-34.4). Herds were more likely to be sero-positive if they were potentially exposed to recent CBPP outbreaks (odds ratio (OR) = 4.9, 95% CI = 2.4-10.1) or of larger sizes (OR = 3.0, 95% CI = 1.2-7.5). Herds vaccinated against the disease had lower odds of being sero-positive (OR = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.02-0.6) than unvaccinated herds.

CONCLUSIONS

CBPP is endemic to agro-pastoral areas, and it is doubtful if the current control strategies are making real impact in reducing production losses. Although eradication is more likely to be achieved through regional approaches, enhanced vaccination coverage supported with targeted surveillance and a trace back system based on cattle trade and movement records will sustain effective control of the disease in the Nigerian cattle population.

An adenoviral vector expressing lipoprotein A, a major antigen of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides, elicits robust immune responses in mice

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony type (MmmSC), is a devastating respiratory disease of cattle. In sub-Saharan Africa, where CBPP is enzootic, live attenuated vaccines are deployed but afford only short-lived protection. In cattle, recovery from experimental MmmSC infection has been associated with the presence of CD4(+) T lymphocytes that secrete interferon gamma in response to MmmSC, and in particular to the lipoprotein A (LppA) antigen. In an effort to develop a better vaccine against CBPP, a viral vector (Ad5-LppA) that expressed LppA was generated from human adenovirus type 5. The LppA-specific immune responses elicited by the Ad5-LppA vector were evaluated in mice, and compared to those elicited by recombinant LppA formulated with a potent adjuvant. Notably, a single administration of Ad5-LppA, but not recombinant protein, sufficed to elicit a robust LppA-specific humoral response. After a booster administration, both vector and recombinant protein elicited strong LppA-specific humoral and cell-mediated responses. Ex vivo stimulation of splenocytes induced extensive proliferation of CD4(+) T cells for mice immunized with vector or protein, and secretion of T helper 1-associated and proinflammatory cytokines for mice immunized with Ad5-LppA. Our study - by demonstrating the potential of a viral-vectored prototypic vaccine to elicit prompt and robust immune responses against a major antigen of MmmSC - represents a first step in developing a recombinant vaccine against CBPP.