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Batin S, Payas A, Bal E, Ekinci Y, Kurtoğlu E, Uçar I, Arik M, Seber T, Varol BK, Ulusoy EK, Bayram AK, Ekinci D, Unur E. Evaluation of cerebellum volume and trunk oscillation velocity in cases with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a preliminary report. EUROPEAN SPINE JOURNAL : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE EUROPEAN SPINE SOCIETY, THE EUROPEAN SPINAL DEFORMITY SOCIETY, AND THE EUROPEAN SECTION OF THE CERVICAL SPINE RESEARCH SOCIETY 2023; 32:4012-4019. [PMID: 37725163 DOI: 10.1007/s00586-023-07948-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE It has been suggested that the cause of the balance disorder seen in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) originates from the central nervous system. However, the extent of the balance problem and the dysfunction of which part of the central nervous system has not been investigated in detail. This study aimed to correlate the values obtained by balance analysis and cerebellum volume measurement in female individuals with AIS with healthy individuals. METHODS Cerebellum volume was calculated via the cloud-based software " https://volbrain.upv.es " using brain magnetic resonance images of 27 healthy and 26 individuals with AIS. The duration of stay in the test positions, the movement strategy used during this time and the amount of postural sway were analyzed by using a computer-assisted force platform and compared statistically. RESULTS Significant differences were found between the AIS and control groups in cerebellum total volume, vermis cerebelli volume (cm3), and trunk oscillation velocity (mm/s) parameters (p < 0.05). Cerebellum and vermis cerebelli volumes were found to be lower and trunk oscillation velocity was found to be greater in patients with AIS. CONCLUSION Balance problems in patients with AIS are correlated with decreased cerebellum volume and increased trunk oscillation velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabri Batin
- Department of Traumatology, Kayseri City Education and Training Hospital Orthopedics, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Payas
- Vocational College of Sungurlu, Hitit University, Çorum, Turkey
| | - Emre Bal
- Fatih Sultan Mehmet Education and Training Hospital Orthopedics and Traumatology Department, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yakup Ekinci
- Department of Traumatology, Kayseri City Education and Training Hospital Orthopedics, Kayseri, Turkey.
| | - Erdal Kurtoğlu
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Ilyas Uçar
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Arik
- Orthopedics and Traumatology Department, Aksaray Ortaköy Public Hospital, Aksaray, Turkey
| | - Turgut Seber
- Radiology Department, Kayseri City Education and Training Hospital, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Büşra Kepenek Varol
- Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nuh Naci Yazgan University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | | | - Ayşe Kaçar Bayram
- Pediatric Neurology Clinic, Kayseri City Education and Training Hospital, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Duygu Ekinci
- Pediatrics Clinic, Kayseri City Education and Training Hospital, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Erdoğan Unur
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
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2
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Handy JD, Wright WG, Haskell A, Servatius L, Servatius RJ. Enhanced Acquisition and Retention of Conditioned Eyeblink Responses in Veterans Expressing PTSD Symptoms: Modulation by Lifetime History of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:595007. [PMID: 33363458 PMCID: PMC7752806 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.595007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhanced acquisition of eyeblink conditioning is observed in active duty military and veterans expressing PTSD symptoms (PTSD+) and those expressing temperamental vulnerabilities to develop PTSD after traumatic experiences, such as behaviorally inhibited temperament. There is a growing literature showing persistent cerebellar abnormalities in those experiencing mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI+) as well as linkages between mTBI and PTSD. With the dependency of eyeblink conditioning on cerebellar processes, the impact of mTBI on eyeblink conditioning in veterans expressing PTSD is unknown. The present study assessed eyeblink conditioning in veterans during two sessions separated by 1 week. With a focus on the accelerated learning of veterans expressing PTSD, training utilized a protocol which degrades learning through interspersing conditioned stimulus (CS) exposures amongst delay-type trials of CS and unconditional stimulus (US) co-terminating trials. Faster acquisition of the eyeblink conditioned responses (CR) was observed in PTSD during Week 1. The Week 2 assessment revealed an interaction of mTBI and PTSD, such that asymptotic performance of PTSD+ was greater than PTSD- among mTBI- veterans, whereas these groups did not differ in mTBI+ veterans. To further examine the relationship between enhanced sensitivity to acquire eyeblink conditioning and PTSD, cluster analysis was performed based on performance across training sessions. Those with enhanced sensitivity to acquire eyeblink conditioned responses expressed more PTSD symptoms, which were specific to Cluster C symptoms of avoidance, in addition to greater behavioral inhibition. These results support the continued investigation of the conditioned eyeblink response as a behavioral indicator of stress-related psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin D Handy
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Syracuse Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Syracuse, NY, United States.,Central New York Research Corporation, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - W Geoffrey Wright
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Syracuse Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Syracuse, NY, United States.,Neuromotor Sciences Program, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Amanda Haskell
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Syracuse Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Syracuse, NY, United States.,Central New York Research Corporation, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Labeeby Servatius
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Syracuse Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Syracuse, NY, United States.,Central New York Research Corporation, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Richard J Servatius
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Syracuse Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Syracuse, NY, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
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3
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Pudas J, Björnholm L, Nikkinen J, Veijola J. Cerebellar white matter in young adults with a familial risk for psychosis. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2019; 287:41-48. [PMID: 30952031 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2019.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juho Pudas
- Department of Psychiatry, Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Department of Psychiatry, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland.
| | - Lassi Björnholm
- Department of Psychiatry, Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Department of Psychiatry, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland; Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, Finland
| | - Juha Nikkinen
- Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, Finland; Department of Radiotherapy, Oulu University Hospital, Finland; Research Unit of Medical Imaging, Physics and Technology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Juha Veijola
- Department of Psychiatry, Research Unit of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Department of Psychiatry, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland; Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, Finland
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4
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Moussa-Tooks AB, Kim DJ, Bartolomeo LA, Purcell JR, Bolbecker AR, Newman SD, O’Donnell BF, Hetrick WP. Impaired Effective Connectivity During a Cerebellar-Mediated Sensorimotor Synchronization Task in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2019; 45:531-541. [PMID: 29800417 PMCID: PMC6483568 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sby064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Prominent conceptual models characterize schizophrenia as a dysconnectivity syndrome, with recent research focusing on the contributions of the cerebellum in this framework. The present study examined the role of the cerebellum and its effective connectivity to the cerebrum during sensorimotor synchronization in schizophrenia. Specifically, the role of the cerebellum in temporally coordinating cerebral motor activity was examined through path analysis. Thirty-one individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia and 40 healthy controls completed a finger-tapping fMRI task including tone-paced synchronization and self-paced continuation tapping at a 500 ms intertap interval (ITI). Behavioral data revealed shorter and more variable ITIs during self-paced continuation, greater clock (vs motor) variance, and greater force of tapping in the schizophrenia group. In a whole-brain analysis, groups showed robust activation of the cerebellum during self-paced continuation but not during tone-paced synchronization. However, effective connectivity analysis revealed decreased connectivity in individuals with schizophrenia between the cerebellum and primary motor cortex but increased connectivity between cerebellum and thalamus during self-paced continuation compared with healthy controls. These findings in schizophrenia indicate diminished temporal coordination of cerebral motor activity by cerebellum during the continuation tapping portion of sensorimotor synchronization. Taken together with the behavioral finding of greater temporal variability in schizophrenia, these effective connectivity results are consistent with structural and temporal models of dysconnectivity in the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dae-Jin Kim
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
| | | | - John R Purcell
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
| | - Amanda R Bolbecker
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN,Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Sharlene D Newman
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN,Imaging Research Facility, Indiana University College of Arts and Sciences, Bloomington, IN
| | - Brian F O’Donnell
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN,Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - William P Hetrick
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN,Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 E. 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405; tel: 812-855-2620, fax: 812-855-4691, e-mail:
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Ding Y, Ou Y, Pan P, Shan X, Chen J, Liu F, Zhao J, Guo W. Cerebellar structural and functional abnormalities in first-episode and drug-naive patients with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2019; 283:24-33. [PMID: 30500474 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2018.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SZ) is a mental disorder that involves cerebral and cerebellar abnormalities. The cerebellum plays an indispensable role in the pathophysiology of SZ. However, individual studies pertaining to the structural and resting-state functional cerebellar abnormalities in patients with SZ have been inconsistent. To make a relatively robust conclusion with little interference, such as different disease episode times and antipsychotic treatment, we conducted this meta-analysis as a first attempt to comprehensively analyze and combine studies of voxel-based morphometry (VBM), amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), and functional connectivity strength (FCS) in first-episode and drug-naive SZ patients, employing the Seed-based d Mapping (SDM) method. Thirteen VBM studies, eight ALFF studies, and three FCS studies involving 783 patients and 704 matched healthy controls were included. Our results showed the presence of structural and functional abnormalities within the cerebellar regions, including most superior/anterior cerebellum (lobule III-V or VI) and posterior/inferior cerebellum (lobule VIII) related to motor function, and posterior cerebellum (lobule VIIa, Crus I, and II) associated with cognition and emotion, and such anomalies might be related to illness duration and clinical symptom severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yudan Ding
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University. Changsha, Hunan 410011, China
| | - Yangpan Ou
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University. Changsha, Hunan 410011, China
| | - Pan Pan
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University. Changsha, Hunan 410011, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Shan
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University. Changsha, Hunan 410011, China
| | - Jindong Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University. Changsha, Hunan 410011, China
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Radiology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital. Tianjin 300000, China
| | - Jingping Zhao
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University. Changsha, Hunan 410011, China
| | - Wenbin Guo
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University. Changsha, Hunan 410011, China.
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6
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He H, Luo C, Luo Y, Duan M, Yi Q, Biswal BB, Yao D. Reduction in gray matter of cerebellum in schizophrenia and its influence on static and dynamic connectivity. Hum Brain Mapp 2018; 40:517-528. [PMID: 30240503 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.24391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathophysiological and atrophic changes in the cerebellum have been well-documented in schizophrenia. Reduction of gray matter (GM) in the cerebellum was confirmed across cognitive and motor cerebellar modules in schizophrenia. Such abnormalities in the cerebellum could potentially have widespread effects on both sensorimotor and cognitive symptoms. In this study, we investigated how reduction change in the cerebellum affects the static and the dynamic functional connectivity (FC) between the cerebellum and cortical/subcortical networks in schizophrenia. Reduction of GM in the cerebellum was confirmed across the cognitive and motor cerebellar modules in schizophrenic subjects. Results from this study demonstrates that the extent of reduction of GM within cerebellum correlated with increased static FCs between the cerebellum and the cortical/subcortical networks, including frontoparietal network (FPN), and thalamus in patients with schizophrenia. Decreased GM in the cerebellum was also associated with a declined dynamic FC between the cerebellum and the FPN in schizophrenic subjects. The severity of patients' positive symptom was related to these structural-functional coupling score of cerebellum. These findings identified potential cerebellar driven functional changes associated with positive symptom deficits. A post hoc analysis exploring the effect of changed FC within cerebellum, confirmed that a significant positive relationship, between dynamic FCs of cerebellum-thalamus and intracerebellum existed in patients, but not in controls. The reduction of GM within the cerebellum might be associated with modulation of cerebellum-thalamus, and contributes to the dysfunctional cerebellar-cortical communication in schizophrenia. Our results provide a new insight into the role of cerebellum in understanding the pathophysiological of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui He
- The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng Luo
- The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuling Luo
- The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingjun Duan
- The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Qizhong Yi
- Psychological Medicine Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Bharat B Biswal
- The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic of China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - Dezhong Yao
- The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
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7
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Steinmetz AB, Freeman JH. Cannabinoid agonist administration within the cerebellar cortex impairs motor learning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 170:106896. [PMID: 29964164 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Systemic administration of cannabinoid agonists impairs cerebellum-dependent motor learning. The cannabinoid-induced impairment of motor learning has been hypothesized to be due to disruption of Purkinje cell plasticity within the cerebellar cortex. In the current study, we tested this hypothesis in rats with localized microinfusions of cannabinoid agonists and antagonists into the cerebellar cortex during eyeblink conditioning, a type of cerebellum-dependent motor learning. Infusions of the cannabinoid agonists WIN55,212-2 or ACEA directly into the eyeblink conditioning microzone of the cerebellar cortex severely impaired acquisition of eyeblink conditioning, whereas the CB1R antagonist SR141716A did not produce a significant impairment. Infusions of WIN55,212-2 outside of the eyeblink conditioning microzone did not impair motor learning, establishing anatomical specificity for the agonist effects. The motor learning impairment caused by WIN55,212-2 and ACEA was rescued by SR141716A, indicating that the learning deficit was produced through CB1Rs. The current findings demonstrate that the effects of cannabinoid receptor agonists on motor learning are localized to CB1Rs within a discrete microzone of the cerebellar cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam B Steinmetz
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - John H Freeman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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Guo W, Zhang F, Liu F, Chen J, Wu R, Chen DQ, Zhang Z, Zhai J, Zhao J. Cerebellar abnormalities in first-episode, drug-naive schizophrenia at rest. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2018; 276:73-79. [PMID: 29628269 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum plays a crucial role in higher cortical functions through a cerebellar-cerebral circuit. However, the specific mechanisms through which the cerebellum contributes to the neurobiology of schizophrenia remain unclear. Forty-nine first-episode, drug-naive patients with schizophrenia and 50 healthy controls underwent structural and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). The MRI data were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry, amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF), cerebellum homogeneity (CH), and seed-based functional connectivity (FC). Patients with schizophrenia did not have anatomical and CH alterations in the cerebellum compared with healthy controls. However, they exhibited decreased ALFF in the right Crus I and abnormal cerebellar FC with brain regions within the dorsal attention network, default-mode network, and ventral attention network. The findings indicate that cerebellar abnormalities in first-episode schizophrenia are mainly in the cerebellar-cerebral connectivities, which may contribute to the neurobiology of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbin Guo
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Fengyu Zhang
- The Global Clinical and Translational Research Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Radiology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Jindong Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Renrong Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Danny Q Chen
- The Lieber Institute for Brain Development at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Zhikun Zhang
- Mental Health Center of the First Affiliated Hospital, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Jinguo Zhai
- School of Mental Health, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong, China
| | - Jingping Zhao
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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Bolbecker AR, Petersen IT, Kent JS, Howell JM, O'Donnell BF, Hetrick WP. New Insights into the Nature of Cerebellar-Dependent Eyeblink Conditioning Deficits in Schizophrenia: A Hierarchical Linear Modeling Approach. Front Psychiatry 2016; 7:4. [PMID: 26834653 PMCID: PMC4725217 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence of cerebellar dysfunction in schizophrenia has mounted over the past several decades, emerging from neuroimaging, neuropathological, and behavioral studies. Consistent with these findings, cerebellar-dependent delay eyeblink conditioning (dEBC) deficits have been identified in schizophrenia. While repeated-measures analysis of variance is traditionally used to analyze dEBC data, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) more reliably describes change over time by accounting for the dependence in repeated-measures data. This analysis approach is well suited to dEBC data analysis because it has less restrictive assumptions and allows unequal variances. The current study examined dEBC measured with electromyography in a single-cue tone paradigm in an age-matched sample of schizophrenia participants and healthy controls (N = 56 per group) using HLM. Subjects participated in 90 trials (10 blocks) of dEBC, during which a 400 ms tone co-terminated with a 50 ms air puff delivered to the left eye. Each block also contained 1 tone-alone trial. The resulting block averages of dEBC data were fitted to a three-parameter logistic model in HLM, revealing significant differences between schizophrenia and control groups on asymptote and inflection point, but not slope. These findings suggest that while the learning rate is not significantly different compared to controls, associative learning begins to level off later and a lower ultimate level of associative learning is achieved in schizophrenia. Given the large sample size in the present study, HLM may provide a more nuanced and definitive analysis of differences between schizophrenia and controls on dEBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda R Bolbecker
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University , Bloomington, IN , USA
| | - Isaac T Petersen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University , Bloomington, IN , USA
| | - Jerillyn S Kent
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University , Bloomington, IN , USA
| | - Josselyn M Howell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University , Bloomington, IN , USA
| | - Brian F O'Donnell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University , Bloomington, IN , USA
| | - William P Hetrick
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University , Bloomington, IN , USA
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Cicchese JJ, Berry SD. Hippocampal Non-Theta-Contingent Eyeblink Classical Conditioning: A Model System for Neurobiological Dysfunction. Front Psychiatry 2016; 7:1. [PMID: 26903886 PMCID: PMC4751249 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Typical information processing is thought to depend on the integrity of neurobiological oscillations that may underlie coordination and timing of cells and assemblies within and between structures. The 3-7 Hz bandwidth of hippocampal theta rhythm is associated with cognitive processes essential to learning and depends on the integrity of cholinergic, GABAergic, and glutamatergic forebrain systems. Since several significant psychiatric disorders appear to result from dysfunction of medial temporal lobe (MTL) neurochemical systems, preclinical studies on animal models may be an important step in defining and treating such syndromes. Many studies have shown that the amount of hippocampal theta in the rabbit strongly predicts the acquisition rate of classical eyeblink conditioning and that impairment of this system substantially slows the rate of learning and attainment of asymptotic performance. Our lab has developed a brain-computer interface that makes eyeblink training trials contingent upon the explicit presence or absence of hippocampal theta. The behavioral benefit of theta-contingent training has been demonstrated in both delay and trace forms of the paradigm with a two- to fourfold increase in learning speed over non-theta states. The non-theta behavioral impairment is accompanied by disruption of the amplitude and synchrony of hippocampal local field potentials, multiple-unit excitation, and single-unit response patterns dependent on theta state. Our findings indicate a significant electrophysiological and behavioral impact of the pretrial state of the hippocampus that suggests an important role for this MTL system in associative learning and a significant deleterious impact in the absence of theta. Here, we focus on the impairments in the non-theta state, integrate them into current models of psychiatric disorders, and suggest how improvement in our understanding of neurobiological oscillations is critical for theories and treatment of psychiatric pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Cicchese
- Department of Psychology, Center for Neuroscience, Miami University , Oxford, OH , USA
| | - Stephen D Berry
- Department of Psychology, Center for Neuroscience, Miami University , Oxford, OH , USA
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11
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Reeb-Sutherland BC, Fox NA. Eyeblink conditioning: a non-invasive biomarker for neurodevelopmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45:376-94. [PMID: 23942847 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-013-1905-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Eyeblink conditioning (EBC) is a classical conditioning paradigm typically used to study the underlying neural processes of learning and memory. EBC has a well-defined neural circuitry, is non-invasive, and can be employed in human infants shortly after birth making it an ideal tool to use in both developing and special populations. In addition, abnormalities in the cerebellum, a region of the brain highly involved in EBC, have been implicated in a number of neurodevelopmental disorders including autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). In the current paper, we review studies that have employed EBC as a biomarker for several neurodevelopmental disorders including fetal alcohol syndrome, Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, specific language impairment, and schizophrenia. In addition, we discuss the benefits of using such a tool in individuals with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany C Reeb-Sutherland
- Department of Psychology, DM 256, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL, 33199, USA,
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Laidi C, d’Albis MA, Wessa M, Linke J, Phillips M, Delavest M, Bellivier F, Versace A, Almeida J, Sarrazin S, Poupon C, Le Dudal K, Daban C, Hamdani N, Leboyer M, Houenou J. Cerebellar volume in schizophrenia and bipolar I disorder with and without psychotic features. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2015; 131:223-33. [PMID: 25430729 PMCID: PMC4329064 DOI: 10.1111/acps.12363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There is growing evidence that cerebellum plays a crucial role in cognition and emotional regulation. Cerebellum is likely to be involved in the physiopathology of both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. The objective of our study was to compare cerebellar size between patients with bipolar disorder, patients with schizophrenia, and healthy controls in a multicenter sample. In addition, we studied the influence of psychotic features on cerebellar size in patients with bipolar disorder. METHOD One hundred and fifteen patients with bipolar I disorder, 32 patients with schizophrenia, and 52 healthy controls underwent 3 Tesla MRI. Automated segmentation of cerebellum was performed using FreeSurfer software. Volumes of cerebellar cortex and white matter were extracted. Analyses of covariance were conducted, and age, sex, and intracranial volume were considered as covariates. RESULTS Bilateral cerebellar cortical volumes were smaller in patients with schizophrenia compared with patients with bipolar I disorder and healthy controls. We found no significant difference of cerebellar volume between bipolar patients with and without psychotic features. No change was evidenced in white matter. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that reduction in cerebellar cortical volume is specific to schizophrenia. Cerebellar dysfunction in bipolar disorder, if present, appears to be more subtle than a reduction in cerebellar volume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Laidi
- AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor - A. Chenevier, Pôle de Psychiatrie, Créteil, France,INSERM, U955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France,Faculté de médecine, Université Paris Est, Créteil, France,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France,UNIACT, Neurospin, I2BM, CEA Saclay, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Marc-Antoine d’Albis
- AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor - A. Chenevier, Pôle de Psychiatrie, Créteil, France,INSERM, U955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France,Faculté de médecine, Université Paris Est, Créteil, France,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France,UNIACT, Neurospin, I2BM, CEA Saclay, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Michèle Wessa
- Section for Experimental Psychopathology and Neuroimaging, Department of General Psychiatry, Center For Psychosocial Medicine, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julia Linke
- Section for Experimental Psychopathology and Neuroimaging, Department of General Psychiatry, Center For Psychosocial Medicine, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mary Phillips
- Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Marine Delavest
- Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France,AP-HP, Groupe Saint-Louis, Lariboisière-Fernand Widal, Pôle Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Frank Bellivier
- Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France,AP-HP, Groupe Saint-Louis, Lariboisière-Fernand Widal, Pôle Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Amelia Versace
- Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jorge Almeida
- Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Samuel Sarrazin
- AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor - A. Chenevier, Pôle de Psychiatrie, Créteil, France,INSERM, U955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France,Faculté de médecine, Université Paris Est, Créteil, France,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France,UNIACT, Neurospin, I2BM, CEA Saclay, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Cyril Poupon
- UNIRS, Neurospin, I2BM, CEA Saclay, Gif-Sur-Yvette, France
| | - Katia Le Dudal
- Centre d’Investigation Clinique 1430 et Plateforme de Ressources Biologiques, Hôpital Henri Mondor, Créteil, France
| | - Claire Daban
- AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor - A. Chenevier, Pôle de Psychiatrie, Créteil, France,INSERM, U955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - Nora Hamdani
- AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor - A. Chenevier, Pôle de Psychiatrie, Créteil, France,INSERM, U955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - Marion Leboyer
- AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor - A. Chenevier, Pôle de Psychiatrie, Créteil, France,INSERM, U955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France,Faculté de médecine, Université Paris Est, Créteil, France,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - Josselin Houenou
- AP-HP, Hôpital H. Mondor - A. Chenevier, Pôle de Psychiatrie, Créteil, France,INSERM, U955, IMRB, Psychiatrie Génétique, Créteil, France,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France,UNIACT, Neurospin, I2BM, CEA Saclay, Gif sur Yvette, France,*Corresponding author: Josselin Houenou, MD, PhD, INSERM U955, Pôle de psychiatrie, Hôpitaux Universitaires Mondor, 40 rue de Mesly 94000 Créteil France, Phone: +33 1 49 81 30 51, Fax: +33 1 49 81 30 59,
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13
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Wagshal D, Knowlton BJ, Cohen JR, Bookheimer SY, Bilder RM, Fernandez VG, Asarnow RF. Cognitive correlates of gray matter abnormalities in adolescent siblings of patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2015; 161:345-50. [PMID: 25541139 PMCID: PMC4405249 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Patients with childhood onset schizophrenia (COS) display widespread gray matter (GM) structural brain abnormalities. Healthy siblings of COS patients share some of these structural abnormalities, suggesting that GM abnormalities are endophenotypes for schizophrenia. Another possible endophenotype for schizophrenia that has been relatively unexplored is corticostriatal dysfunction. The corticostriatal system plays an important role in skill learning. Our previous studies have demonstrated corticostriatal dysfunction in COS siblings with a profound skill learning deficit and abnormal pattern of brain activation during skill learning. This study investigated whether structural abnormalities measured using volumetric brain morphometry (VBM) were present in siblings of COS patients and whether these were related to deficits in cognitive skill learning. Results revealed smaller GM volume in COS siblings relative to controls in a number of regions, including occipital, parietal, and subcortical regions including the striatum, and greater GM volume relative to controls in several subcortical regions. Volume in the right superior frontal gyrus and cerebellum were related to performance differences between groups on the weather prediction task, a measure of cognitive skill learning. Our results support the idea that corticostriatal and cerebellar impairment in unaffected siblings of COS patients are behaviorally relevant and may reflect genetic risk for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana Wagshal
- University of California San Francisco, United States.
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14
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Kent JS, Bolbecker AR, O'Donnell BF, Hetrick WP. Eyeblink Conditioning in Schizophrenia: A Critical Review. Front Psychiatry 2015; 6:146. [PMID: 26733890 PMCID: PMC4683521 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is accruing evidence of cerebellar abnormalities in schizophrenia. The theory of cognitive dysmetria considers cerebellar dysfunction a key component of schizophrenia. Delay eyeblink conditioning (EBC), a cerebellar-dependent translational probe, is a behavioral index of cerebellar integrity. The circuitry underlying EBC has been well characterized by non-human animal research, revealing the cerebellum as the essential circuitry for the associative learning instantiated by this task. However, there have been persistent inconsistencies in EBC findings in schizophrenia. This article thoroughly reviews published studies investigating EBC in schizophrenia, with an emphasis on possible effects of antipsychotic medication and stimulus and analysis parameters on reports of EBC performance in schizophrenia. Results indicate a consistent finding of impaired EBC performance in schizophrenia, as measured by decreased rates of conditioning, and that medication or study design confounds do not account for this impairment. Results are discussed within the context of theoretical and neurochemical models of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerillyn S Kent
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA; Minneapolis Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Amanda R Bolbecker
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Brian F O'Donnell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - William P Hetrick
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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15
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna M. Barch
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed; Departments of Psychology, Psychiatry, and Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, Box 1125, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130, US; tel: 314-935-8729 or 314-362-2608, fax: 314-935-8790, e-mail:
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16
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Bolbecker AR, Kent JS, Petersen IT, Klaunig MJ, Forsyth JK, Howell JM, Westfall DR, O’Donnell BF, Hetrick WP. Impaired cerebellar-dependent eyeblink conditioning in first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2014; 40:1001-10. [PMID: 23962891 PMCID: PMC4133656 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbt112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Consistent with reports of cerebellar structural, functional, and neurochemical anomalies in schizophrenia, robust cerebellar-dependent delay eyeblink conditioning (dEBC) deficits have been observed in the disorder. Impaired dEBC is also present in schizotypal personality disorder, an intermediate phenotype of schizophrenia. The present work sought to determine whether dEBC deficits exist in nonpsychotic first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia. A single-cue tone dEBC paradigm consisting of 10 blocks with 10 trials each (9 paired and 1 unpaired trials) was used to examine the functional integrity of cerebellar circuitry in schizophrenia participants, individuals with a first-degree relative diagnosed with schizophrenia, and healthy controls with no first-degree relatives diagnosed with schizophrenia. The conditioned stimulus (a 400ms tone) coterminated with the unconditioned stimulus (a 50ms air puff to the left eye) on paired trials. One relative and 2 healthy controls were removed from further analysis due to declining conditioned response rates, leaving 18 schizophrenia participants, 17 first-degree relatives, and 16 healthy controls. Electromyographic data were subsequently analyzed using growth curve models in hierarchical linear regression. Acquisition of dEBC conditioned responses was significantly impaired in schizophrenia and first-degree relative groups compared with controls. This finding that cerebellar-mediated associative learning deficits are present in first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia provides evidence that dEBC abnormalities in schizophrenia may not be due to medication or course of illness effects. Instead, the present results are consistent with models of schizophrenia positing cerebellar-cortical circuit abnormalities and suggest that cerebellar abnormalities represent a risk marker for the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jerillyn S. Kent
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
| | - Isaac T. Petersen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
| | | | | | | | | | | | - William P. Hetrick
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 E. 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, US; tel: 812-855-2620, fax: 812-856-4544, e-mail:
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17
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Effects of OEF/OIF-related physical and emotional co-morbidities on associative learning: concurrent delay and trace eyeblink classical conditioning. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2014; 11:3046-73. [PMID: 24625622 PMCID: PMC3987020 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph110303046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Revised: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the performance of veterans and active duty personnel who served in Operation Enduring Freedom and/or Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) on a basic associative learning task. Eighty-eight individuals participated in this study. All received a comprehensive clinical evaluation to determine the presence and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). The eyeblink conditioning task was composed of randomly intermixed delay and trace conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) pairs (acquisition) followed by a series of CS only trials (extinction). Results revealed that those with a clinical diagnosis of PTSD or a diagnosis of PTSD with comorbid mTBI acquired delay and trace conditioned responses (CRs) to levels and at rates similar to a deployed control group, thus suggesting intact basic associative learning. Differential extinction impairment was observed in the two clinical groups. Acquisition of CRs for both delay and trace conditioning, as well as extinction of trace CRs, was associated with alcoholic behavior across all participants. These findings help characterize the learning and memory function of individuals with PTSD and mTBI from OEF/OIF and raise the alarming possibility that the use of alcohol in this group may lead to more significant cognitive dysfunction.
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18
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Bernard JA, Mittal VA. Cerebellar-motor dysfunction in schizophrenia and psychosis-risk: the importance of regional cerebellar analysis approaches. Front Psychiatry 2014; 5:160. [PMID: 25505424 PMCID: PMC4243486 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor abnormalities in individuals with schizophrenia and those at-risk for psychosis are well documented. An accumulating body of work has also highlighted motor abnormalities related to cerebellar dysfunction in schizophrenia including eye-blink conditioning, timing, postural control, and motor learning. We have also recently found evidence for motor dysfunction in individuals at ultra high-risk for psychosis (1-3). This is particularly relevant as the cerebellum is thought to be central to the cognitive dysmetria model of schizophrenia, and these overt motor signs may point to more general cerebellar dysfunction in the etiology of psychotic disorders. While studies have provided evidence indicative of motor cerebellar dysfunction in at-risk populations and in schizophrenia, findings with respect to the cerebellum have been mixed. One factor potentially contributing to these mixed results is the whole-structure approach taken when investigating the cerebellum. In non-human primates, there are distinct closed-loop circuits between the cerebellum, thalamus, and brain with motor and non-motor cortical regions. Recent human neuroimaging has supported this finding and indicates that there is a cerebellar functional topography (4), and this information is being missed with whole-structure approaches. Here, we review cerebellar-motor dysfunction in individuals with schizophrenia and those at-risk for psychosis. We also discuss cerebellar abnormalities in psychosis, and the cerebellar functional topography. Because of the segregated functional regions of the cerebellum, we propose that it is important to look at the structure regionally in order to better understand its role in motor dysfunction in these populations. This is analogous to approaches taken with the basal ganglia, where each region is considered separately. Such an approach is necessary to better understand cerebellar pathophysiology on a macro-structural level with respect to the pathogenesis of psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Bernard
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder , Boulder, CO , USA
| | - Vijay A Mittal
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder , Boulder, CO , USA ; Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder , Boulder, CO , USA
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19
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Coesmans M, Röder CH, Smit AE, Koekkoek SK, De Zeeuw CI, Frens MA, van der Geest JN. Cerebellar motor learning deficits in medicated and medication-free men with recent-onset schizophrenia. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2014; 39:E3-11. [PMID: 24083457 PMCID: PMC3868669 DOI: 10.1503/jpn.120205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The notion that cerebellar deficits may underlie clinical symptoms in people with schizophrenia is tested by evaluating 2 forms of cerebellar learning in patients with recent-onset schizophrenia. A potential medication effect is evaluated by including patients with or without antipsychotics. METHODS We assessed saccadic eye movement adaptation and eyeblink conditioning in men with recent-onset schizophrenia who were taking antipsychotic medication or who were antipsychotic-free and in age-matched controls. RESULTS We included 39 men with schizophrenia (10 who were taking clozapine, 16 who were taking haloperidol and 13 who were antipsychotic-free) and 29 controls in our study. All participants showed significant saccadic adaptation. Adaptation strength did not differ between healthy controls and men with schizophrenia. The speed of saccade adaptation, however, was significantly lower in men with schizophrenia. They showed a significantly lower increase in the number of conditioned eyeblink responses. Over all experiments, no consistent effects of medication were observed. These outcomes did not correlate with age, years of education, psychopathology or dose of antipsychotics. LIMITATIONS As patients were not randomized for treatment, an influence of confounding variables associated with medication status cannot be excluded. Individual patients also varied along the schizophrenia spectrum despite the relative homogeneity with respect to onset of illness and short usage of medication. Finally, the relatively small number of participants may have concealed effects as a result of insufficient statistical power. CONCLUSION We found several cerebellar learning deficits in men with schizophrenia that we cannot attribute to the use of antipsychotics. Although this finding, combined with the fact that deficits are already present in patients with recent-onset schizophrenia, could suggest that cerebellar impairments are a trait deficit in people with schizophrenia. This should be confirmed in longitudinal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Maarten A. Frens
- Correspondence to: M.A. Frens, Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands;
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20
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Parker KL, Andreasen NC, Liu D, Freeman JH, O’Leary DS. Eyeblink conditioning in unmedicated schizophrenia patients: a positron emission tomography study. Psychiatry Res 2013; 214:402-9. [PMID: 24090512 PMCID: PMC3980571 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that patients with schizophrenia exhibit dysfunctions in a widely distributed circuit-the cortico-cerebellar-thalamic-cortical circuit, or CCTCC-and that this may explain the multiple cognitive deficits observed in the disorder. This study uses positron emission tomography (PET) with O(15) H₂O to measure regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in response to a classic test of cerebellar function, the associative learning that occurs during eyeblink conditioning, in a sample of 20 unmedicated schizophrenia patients and 20 closely matched healthy controls. The PET paradigm examined three phases of acquisition and extinction (early, middle and late). The patients displayed impaired behavioral performance during both acquisition and extinction. The imaging data indicate that, compared to the control subjects, the patients displayed decreases in rCBF in all three components of the CCTCC during both acquisition and extinction. Specifically, patients had less rCBF in the middle and medial frontal lobes, anterior cerebellar lobules I/V and VI, as well as the thalamus during acquisition and although similar areas were found in the frontal lobe, ipsilateral cerebellar lobule IX showed consistently less activity in patients during extinction. Thus this study provides additional support for the hypothesis that patients with schizophrenia have a cognitive dysmetria--an inability to smoothly coordinate many different types of mental activity--that affects even a very basic cognitive task that taps into associative learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystal L. Parker
- Department of Psychiatry, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242, USA,Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 319 353 8580, mobile: +1 515 708 0490; fax: +1 319 353 8300., , (K.L. Parker)
| | - Nancy C. Andreasen
- Department of Psychiatry, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242, USA
| | - Dawei Liu
- Department of Biostatistics, College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242, USA
| | - John H. Freeman
- Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242, USA
| | - Daniel S. O’Leary
- Department of Psychiatry, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242, USA
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Oristaglio J, Hyman West S, Ghaffari M, Lech MS, Verma BR, Harvey JA, Welsh JP, Malone RP. Children with autism spectrum disorders show abnormal conditioned response timing on delay, but not trace, eyeblink conditioning. Neuroscience 2013; 248:708-18. [PMID: 23769889 PMCID: PMC3791861 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Revised: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and age-matched typically-developing (TD) peers were tested on two forms of eyeblink conditioning (EBC), a Pavlovian associative learning paradigm where subjects learn to execute an appropriately-timed eyeblink in response to a previously neutral conditioning stimulus (CS). One version of the task, trace EBC, interposes a stimulus-free interval between the presentation of the CS and the unconditioned stimulus (US), a puff of air to the eye which causes the subjects to blink. In delay EBC, the CS overlaps in time with the delivery of the US, usually with both stimuli terminating simultaneously. ASD children performed normally during trace EBC, exhibiting no differences from TD subjects with regard to the learning rate or the timing of the conditioned response. However, when subsequently tested on delay EBC, subjects with ASD displayed abnormally-timed conditioned eye blinks that began earlier and peaked sooner than those of TD subjects, consistent with previous findings. The results suggest an impaired ability of children with ASD to properly time conditioned eye blinks which appears to be specific to delay EBC. We suggest that this deficit may reflect a dysfunction of the cerebellar cortex in which increases in the intensity or duration of sensory input can temporarily disrupt the accuracy of motor timing over short temporal intervals.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Oristaglio
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA.
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22
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Forsyth JK, Bolbecker AR, Mehta CS, Klaunig MJ, Steinmetz JE, O'Donnell BF, Hetrick WP. Cerebellar-dependent eyeblink conditioning deficits in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Bull 2012; 38:751-9. [PMID: 21148238 PMCID: PMC3406528 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbq148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that abnormalities in neural circuitry and timing associated with the cerebellum may play a role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) may be genetically linked to schizophrenia, but individuals with SPD are freer from potential research confounds and may therefore offer insight into psychophysiological correlates of schizophrenia. The present study employed a delay eyeblink conditioning (EBC) procedure to examine cerebellar-dependent learning in schizophrenia, SPD, and healthy control subjects (n = 18 per group) who were matched for age and gender. The conditioned stimulus was a 400-ms tone that coterminated with a 50 ms unconditioned stimulus air puff. Cognitive performance on the Picture Completion, Digit Symbol Coding, Similarities, and Digit Span subscales of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale--Third Edition was also investigated. The schizophrenia and SPD groups demonstrated robust EBC impairment relative to the control subjects; they had significantly fewer conditioned responses (CRs), as well as smaller CR amplitudes. Schizophrenia subjects showed cognitive impairment across subscales compared with SPD and control subjects; SPD subjects showed intermediate performance to schizophrenia and control subjects and performed significantly worse than controls on Picture Completion. Impaired EBC was significantly related to decreased processing speed in schizophrenia spectrum subjects. These findings support the role of altered cortico-cerebellar-thalamic-cortical circuitry in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K. Forsyth
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Amanda R. Bolbecker
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Crystal S. Mehta
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Mallory J. Klaunig
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN
| | | | - Brian F. O'Donnell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN,Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - William P. Hetrick
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,Larue D. Carter Memorial Hospital, Indianapolis, IN,Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN,To whom correspondence should be addressed; tel: 812-855-2620, fax: 812-855-4544, e-mail:
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23
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Bolbecker AR, Steinmetz AB, Mehta CS, Forsyth JK, Klaunig MJ, Lazar EK, Steinmetz JE, O'Donnell BF, Hetrick WP. Exploration of cerebellar-dependent associative learning in schizophrenia: effects of varying and shifting interstimulus interval on eyeblink conditioning. Behav Neurosci 2012; 125:687-98. [PMID: 21942432 DOI: 10.1037/a0025150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Eyeblink conditioning abnormalities have been reported in schizophrenia, but the extent to which these anomalies are evident across a range of delay intervals (i.e., interstimulus intervals; ISIs) is unknown. In addition, the effects of ISI shifts on learning are unknown, though such manipulations can be informative about the plasticity of cerebellar timing functions. Therefore, the primary purpose of the present study was to investigate the interactions between ISI manipulations and learning in schizophrenia. A standard delay eyeblink conditioning procedure with four different interstimulus intervals (ISIs; 250, 350, 550, 850 ms) was employed. Each eyeblink conditioning experiment was immediately followed by another with a different ISI, thus permitting the characterization of conditioned response (CR) learning at one ISI and the extent to which CRs could be generated at a different latency following an ISI shift. Collapsing across all conditions, the schizophrenia group (n = 55) had significantly fewer conditioned responses and longer onset latencies than age-matched controls (n = 55). Surprisingly, shifting to a new ISI had negligible effects on conditioned response rates in both groups. These findings contribute to evidence of robust eyeblink conditioning abnormalities in schizophrenia and suggest impaired cerebellar function, but underscore the need for more research to clarify the source of these abnormalities and their relationship to clinical manifestations of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda R Bolbecker
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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24
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Cerebellar development in childhood onset schizophrenia and non-psychotic siblings. Psychiatry Res 2011; 193:131-7. [PMID: 21803550 PMCID: PMC3430079 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2011.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 02/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We explored regional and total volumetric cerebellar differences in probands and their unaffected full siblings relative to typically developing participants. Participants included 94 (51 males) patients diagnosed with childhood onset schizophrenia (COS), 80 related non-psychotic siblings (37 males) and 110 (64 males) typically developing participants scanned longitudinally. The sample mean age was 16.87(S.D.=4.7; range 6.5 to 29). We performed mixed model regressions to examine group differences in trajectory and volume. The COS group had smaller bilateral anterior lobes and anterior and total vermis volumes than controls. The COS group diverged from controls over time in total, left, right, and bilateral posterior inferior cerebellum. Siblings did not have any fixed volumetric differences relative to controls but differed from controls in developmental trajectories of total and right cerebellum, left inferior posterior, left superior posterior, and superior vermis. Results are consistent with previous COS findings and several reports of decreased cerebellar volume in adult onset schizophrenia. Sibling trajectories may represent a trait marker, although the effect size for volumetric differences in early adulthood may be small.
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Eye-blink conditioning deficits indicate temporal processing abnormalities in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2009; 111:182-91. [PMID: 19351577 PMCID: PMC2702657 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2009.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2008] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Theoretical models suggest that symptoms of schizophrenia may be due to a dysfunctional modulatory system associated with the cerebellum. Although it has long been known that the cerebellum plays a critical role in associative learning and motor timing, recent evidence suggests that it also plays a role in nonmotor psychological processes. Indeed, cerebellar anomalies in schizophrenia have been linked to cognitive dysfunction and poor long-term outcome. To test the hypothesis that schizophrenia is associated with cerebellar dysfunction, cerebellar-dependent, delay eye-blink conditioning was examined in 62 individuals with schizophrenia and 62 age-matched non-psychiatric comparison subjects. The conditioned stimulus was a 400 ms tone, which co-terminated with a 50 ms unconditioned stimulus air puff. A subset of participants (25 with schizophrenia and 29 controls) also completed the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. Participants with schizophrenia exhibited lower rates of eye-blink conditioning, including earlier (less adaptively timed) conditioned response latencies. Cognitive functioning was correlated with the rate of conditioned responsing in the non-psychiatric comparison subjects but not among those with schizophrenia, and the magnitude of these correlations significantly differed between groups. These findings are consistent with models of schizophrenia in which disruptions within the cortico-cerebellar-thalamic-cortical (CCTC) brain circuit are postulated to underlie the cognitive fragmentation that characterizes the disorder.
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Bolbecker AR, Mehta C, Johannesen JK, Edwards CR, O'Donnell BF, Shekhar A, Nurnberger JI, Steinmetz JE, Hetrick WP. Eyeblink conditioning anomalies in bipolar disorder suggest cerebellar dysfunction. Bipolar Disord 2009; 11:19-32. [PMID: 19133963 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00642.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Accumulating research implicates the cerebellum in non-motor psychological processes and psychiatric diseases, including bipolar disorder (BD). Despite recent evidence that cerebellar lesions have been documented to trigger bipolar-like symptoms, few studies have directly examined the functional integrity of the cerebellum in those afflicted with BD. METHODS Using a single-cue delay eyeblink conditioning procedure, the functional integrity of the cerebellum was examined in 28 individuals with BD (9 manic, 8 mixed, and 11 euthymic) and 28 age-matched healthy controls. RESULTS Analysis of the bipolar group as a whole indicated a conditioned response acquisition and timing deficit compared to controls. However, when the bipolar group was categorized according to mood state (mixed, manic, euthymic), individuals tested during mixed episodes were strikingly impaired, performing significantly worse than all other groups on both the acquisition and timing of conditioned responses. CONCLUSIONS These findings extend prior research implicating cerebellar functional abnormalities in BD and suggest that cerebellar dysfunction may be associated with mood state and course of illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda R Bolbecker
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
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Mudge J, Miller NA, Khrebtukova I, Lindquist IE, May GD, Huntley JJ, Luo S, Zhang L, van Velkinburgh JC, Farmer AD, Lewis S, Beavis WD, Schilkey FD, Virk SM, Black CF, Myers MK, Mader LC, Langley RJ, Utsey JP, Kim RW, Roberts RC, Khalsa SK, Garcia M, Ambriz-Griffith V, Harlan R, Czika W, Martin S, Wolfinger RD, Perrone-Bizzozero NI, Schroth GP, Kingsmore SF. Genomic convergence analysis of schizophrenia: mRNA sequencing reveals altered synaptic vesicular transport in post-mortem cerebellum. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3625. [PMID: 18985160 PMCID: PMC2576459 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2008] [Accepted: 10/10/2008] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a common, disabling mental illness with high heritability but complex, poorly understood genetic etiology. As the first phase of a genomic convergence analysis of SCZ, we generated 16.7 billion nucleotides of short read, shotgun sequences of cDNA from post-mortem cerebellar cortices of 14 patients and six, matched controls. A rigorous analysis pipeline was developed for analysis of digital gene expression studies. Sequences aligned to approximately 33,200 transcripts in each sample, with average coverage of 450 reads per gene. Following adjustments for confounding clinical, sample and experimental sources of variation, 215 genes differed significantly in expression between cases and controls. Golgi apparatus, vesicular transport, membrane association, Zinc binding and regulation of transcription were over-represented among differentially expressed genes. Twenty three genes with altered expression and involvement in presynaptic vesicular transport, Golgi function and GABAergic neurotransmission define a unifying molecular hypothesis for dysfunction in cerebellar cortex in SCZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joann Mudge
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Neil A. Miller
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | | | - Ingrid E. Lindquist
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Gregory D. May
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Jim J. Huntley
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Shujun Luo
- Illumina Inc., Hayward, California, United States of America
| | - Lu Zhang
- Illumina Inc., Hayward, California, United States of America
| | | | - Andrew D. Farmer
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Sharon Lewis
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - William D. Beavis
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Faye D. Schilkey
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Selene M. Virk
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - C. Forrest Black
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - M. Kathy Myers
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Lar C. Mader
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Ray J. Langley
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - John P. Utsey
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Ryan W. Kim
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Rosalinda C. Roberts
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Sat Kirpal Khalsa
- Northern New Mexico College, Española, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Meredith Garcia
- Northern New Mexico College, Española, New Mexico, United States of America
| | | | - Richard Harlan
- Northern New Mexico College, Española, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Wendy Czika
- SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Stanton Martin
- SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, United States of America
| | | | - Nora I. Perrone-Bizzozero
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Gary P. Schroth
- Illumina Inc., Hayward, California, United States of America
| | - Stephen F. Kingsmore
- National Center for Genome Resources, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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