Influence of the mycotoxins α- and β-zearalenol (ZOL) on regulators of cap-dependent translation control in pig endometrial cells

Impact of Fusarium-Derived Mycoestrogens on Female Reproduction: A Systematic Review

Contamination of the world’s food supply and animal feed with mycotoxins is a growing concern as global temperatures rise and promote the growth of fungus. Zearalenone (ZEN), an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, is a common contaminant of cereal grains and has also been detected at lower levels in meat, milk, and spices. ZEN’s synthetic derivative, zeranol, is used as a growth promoter in United States (US) and Canadian beef production. Experimental research suggests that ZEN and zeranol disrupt the endocrine and reproductive systems, leading to infertility, polycystic ovarian syndrome-like phenotypes, pregnancy loss, and low birth weight. With widespread human dietary exposure and growing experimental evidence of endocrine-disrupting properties, a comprehensive review of the impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites on the female reproductive system is warranted. The objective of this systematic review was to summarize the in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological literature and evaluate the potential impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites (commonly referred to as mycoestrogens) on female reproductive outcomes. We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO registration CRD42020166469) of the literature (2000–2020) following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The data sources were primary literature published in English obtained from searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. The ToxR tool was applied to assess risk of bias. In vitro and in vivo studies (n = 104) were identified and, overall, evidence consistently supported adverse effects of mycoestrogens on physiological processes, organs, and tissues associated with female reproduction. In non-pregnant animals, mycoestrogens alter follicular profiles in the ovary, disrupt estrus cycling, and increase myometrium thickness. Furthermore, during pregnancy, mycoestrogen exposure contributes to placental hemorrhage, stillbirth, and impaired fetal growth. No epidemiological studies fitting the inclusion criteria were identified.

Invited review: Diagnosis of zearalenone (ZEN) exposure of farm animals and transfer of its residues into edible tissues (carry over)

The aim of the review was to evaluate the opportunities for diagnosing the zearalenone (ZEN) exposure and intoxication of farm animals by analyzing biological specimens for ZEN residue levels. Metabolism is discussed to be important when evaluating species-specific consequences for the overall toxicity of ZEN. Besides these toxicological facts, analytics of ZEN residues in various animal-derived matrices requires sensitive, matrix-adapted multi-methods with low limits of quantification, which is more challenging than the ZEN analysis in feed. Based on dose-response experiments with farm animals, the principle usability of various specimens as bio-indicators for ZEN exposure is discussed with regard to individual variation and practicability for the veterinary practitioner. ZEN residue analysis in biological samples does not only enable evaluation of ZEN exposure but also allows the risk for the consumer arising from contaminated foodstuffs of animal origin to be assessed. It was compiled from literature that the tolerable daily intake of 0.25 μg ZEN/kg body weight and day is exploited to approximately 8%, when a daily basket of animal foodstuffs and associated carry over factors are assumed at reported ZEN contamination levels of complete feed.

Natural feed contaminant zearalenone decreases the expressions of important pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators and mitogen-activated protein kinase/NF-κB signalling molecules in pigs

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an oestrogenic mycotoxin produced byFusariumspecies, considered to be a risk factor from both public health and agricultural perspectives. In the presentin vivostudy, a feeding trial was conducted to evaluate thein vivoeffect of a ZEA-contaminated diet on immune response in young pigs. The effect of ZEA on pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1β and interferon-γ) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10 and IL-4) cytokines and other molecules involved in inflammatory processes (matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)/tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMP), nuclear receptors: PPARγ and NF-κB1, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK): mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 7 (TAK1)/mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (p38α)/mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (JNK1)/ mitogen-activated protein kinase 9 (JNK2)) in the liver of piglets was investigated. The present results showed that a concentration of 316 parts per billion ZEA leads to a significant decrease in the levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines at both gene expression and protein levels, correlated with a decrease in the levels of other inflammatory mediators, MMP and TIMP. The results also showed that dietary ZEA induces a dramatic reduction in the expressions ofNF-κB1andTAK1/p38αMAPK genes in the liver of the experimentally intoxicated piglets, and has no effect on the expression ofPPARγmRNA. The present results suggest that the toxic action of ZEA begins in the upstream of the MAPK signalling pathway by the inhibition of TAK1, a MAPK/NF-κB activator. In conclusion, the present study shows that ZEA alters several important parameters of the hepatic cellular immune response. From an economic point of view, these data suggest that, in pigs, ZEA is not only a powerful oestrogenic mycotoxin but also a potential hepatotoxin when administered through the oral route. Therefore, the present results represent additional data from cellular and molecular levels that could be taken into account in the determination of the regulation limit of the tolerance to ZEA.

The Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) in animal feeding

The contamination of cereal grains with toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, mycotoxins, is a permanent challenge in animal nutrition as health and performance of the animals may be compromised as well as the quality of animal derived food. Therefore the present article reviews the issue of mycotoxins in animal nutrition. As the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) are of particular importance under the production conditions in central Europe and Germany, with respect to their frequent occurrence in toxicologically relevant concentrations, special emphasis is layed on those mycotoxins. The effects of DON and ZON on susceptible animals as well as management strategies to cope with the contamination of grain with those toxins are reviewed.

Comparative study of toxic effects of zearalenone and its two major metabolites alpha-zearalenol and beta-zearalenol on cultured human Caco-2 cells

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a fusarotoxin converted predominantly into alpha-zearalenol (alpha-Zol) and beta-zearalenol (beta-Zol) by hepatic hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. The feeding of naturally contaminated grains with ZEN was associated with hyperestrogenic and adverse effects on humans and animals. There is a lack of information on the attribution of the toxic effects of these toxins. One wonders if these effects are due to the parent molecule (ZEN) or to its major metabolites (alpha-Zol and beta-Zol). Using human Caco-2 cells, we looked for the molecular mechanisms of toxicity of ZEN, alpha-Zol, and beta-Zol. Toxicity effects were studied by MTT viability assay and oxidative stress induction by measuring malondialdehyde (MDA) generation. To check whether the oxidative stress induction was associated to DNA lesions, we looked for DNA fragmentation by means of the Comet and the diphenylamine assays. To specify cell death pathway, we investigated caspase-3 activation, confirmed by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage and by Bcl-2 depletion. Our results clearly demonstrated that ZEN as well as its two metabolites presented variable toxic effects. They induced cell death and an increase in MDA generation. These effects were associated to DNA fragmentation as well as caspase-3 activation. The observed toxic effects seem to be relieved by the metabolism of ZEN into alpha-Zol and beta-Zol.

Cytotoxicity effects induced by Zearalenone metabolites, alpha Zearalenol and beta Zearalenol, on cultured Vero cells

Zearalenone (Zen) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by several species of Fusarium. It has been implicated in several mycotoxicosis in farm animals and in humans. The major metabolites of this mycotoxin in various species are alpha and beta Zearalenol. In vivo, Zen is mainly reduced to these alcoholic metabolites which cause reproductive tract disorders and impaired fertility due to their estrogenic activities. In this study, we examined the cytotoxicity of alpha and beta Zearalenol in cultured cells. For this purpose, the MTT assay was carried out and the influence of alpha and beta Zearalenol on protein and DNA syntheses was assessed. To evaluate the cell stress caused by these two metabolites, oxidative stress measured by MDA induction and stress protein induction (Hsp 70, Hsp 27) were tested. Results showed that alpha and beta Zearalenol were metabolites that caused cytotoxicity by inhibiting cell viability, protein and DNA syntheses and inducing oxidative damage and over-expression of stress proteins. However, the Zen metabolites exhibited lower toxicity than Zen, with beta zearalenol being the more active of the two metabolites.

The embryonic pregnancy signal oestradiol influences gene expression at the level of translational initiation in porcine endometrial cells

In the pig, conceptus-derived oestrogens (days 11 and 12 of pregnancy) seem to be a critical component of the signalling mechanism for maternal recognition of pregnancy. Embryonic oestrogens can mediate effects on endometrial function by interactions with epithelial and stromal oestrogen receptors (ER). Recent data demonstrate that cell membrane ER interacts with the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway in several types of cells. The protein kinase Akt is involved in the control of cell growth, survival and proliferation. One distinct function of the Akt signalling cascade is its ability to phosphorylate the eukaryotic initiation factor-4E (eIF-4E)-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1). This phosphorylation suppresses the inhibitory effect of 4E-BP1 on the translation initiation factor eIF4E and in such a way potentially stimulates gene expression at the level of translational initiation. The aim of the present study was to examine if embryonic oestradiol (E(2)) transmits its effect by such a mechanism. Endometrial cells of cyclic gilts (day 13 of the oestrous cycle, n = 4) were cultured and supplemented with vehicle (control), E(2) (50 and 100 pm/l) or with the selective ER modulator raloxifen (10 and 1000 nm/l), and incubated for 24 h. The cell viability was detected by MTT assay, the abundance and phosphorylation of Akt, 4E-BP1 and ERalpha was analysed by Western blotting. Incubation with E(2) or raloxifen did not alter endometrial cell viability. The phosphorylation of Akt at Ser(473) seems to be increased by E(2) (p < 0.05) and decreased by raloxifen (p > 0.05). Raloxifen (1000 nm/l) induced a band shift in 4E-BP1 to the highest electrophoretic mobility which reflects a decrease in phosphorylation (p < 0.05), whereas an influence of E(2) on 4E-BP1 phosphorylation could not be detected. The decrease (p < 0.05) of the abundance of the 80 kDa ERalpha form both by E(2) and raloxifen indicates that the E(2)-stimulated Akt phosphorylation and the inhibition of 4E-BP1 phosphorylation by raloxifen is an E(2) ER-transmitted process. Therefore, embryonic oestrogens can potentially transmit their effect by influencing signalling cascades which modulate gene expression at the level of translational initiation.

In vivoandin vitroeffects of the mycotoxins zearalenone and deoxynivalenol on different non-reproductive and reproductive organs in female pigs: A review

This review summarizes the toxicological data on the effects of the mycotoxins zearalenone (ZON), its metabolites, and deoxynivalenol (DON) on different parameters relating to reproductive and non-reproductive organs in female pigs. In vivo, 22 mg ZON kg(-1) in the diet cause alterations in the reproductive tract of swine such as in the uterus, and affects follicular and embryo development. ZON and its metabolites have been shown to bind competitively to oestrogen receptors in an in vitro system. The feeding of pigs with a 9 mg DON kg(-1)-contaminated diet can act on protein synthesis, humoral and cellular immune response depending on dose, exposure and timing of functional immune assay, and affect liver and spleen cell structures. Beside these effects, reproductive alterations were observed in pigs, too. Both in vivo and in vitro exposure to DON decreased oocyte and embryo development. In vitro application of DON to uterine cells inhibits their proliferation rate and modulates the process of translation at a different molecular level when compared with the in vivo application. The histopathological results provide evidence of spleen and liver dysfunction in the absence of clinical signs, especially in pigs fed higher concentrations of Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat. Prepuberal gilts react more sensitively to DON > ZON feeding compared with pregnant sows. In the liver, histopathological changes such as glycogen decrease and interlobular collagen uptake were only observed in prepuberal gilts, whereas enhancement of haemosiderin was found in both perpuberal gilts and pregnant sows. This review presents some of the current knowledge on the biological activities of ZON and DON in pig. Altogether, ZON affects reproduction of pigs most seriously because it possesses oestrogenic activity. However, DON affects reproduction in pigs via indirect effects such as reduced feed intake, resulting in reduced growth or impairment of function in vital organs such as liver and spleen.

In vitro and in vivo effects of deoxynivalenol (DNV) on regulators of cap dependent translation control in porcine endometrium

Deoxynivalenol (DNV) is the most frequently encountered trichothecene in grain-based foods, and is able to produce toxic effects resulting in various diseases in farm and laboratory animals. The molecular mechanisms that control this mycotoxin mediated effects in porcine endometrial cells are far from being completely understood. Recent results show that DNV inhibits protein synthesis in actively proliferating tissues. Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of this mycotoxin on a cellular level in an in vivo and in vitro system. The abundance and phosphorylation state (activity) of the cell cycle dependent kinases MAPk and Akt (PKB) and their potential targets eIF-4E (eukaryotic initiation factor 4E) and 4E-BP1 (4E binding protein, eIF4E repressor protein) were examined. In previous investigations it was found that these factors are involved in initiation of mRNA translation. The results show that DNV in vitro strongly reduce the abundance of p38 MAPk, protein kinase Akt and the alpha- and beta-4E-BP1 bands. The phosphorylation state of these proteins was obviously not modulated. In contrast, the eIF4E phosphorylation was strongly reduced in DNV treated cells. In summary, our in vitro results let assume that DNV potentially influences gene expression, but this work does not present a direct proof that DNV alters processes, which are involved in the initiation of mRNA translation. Surprisingly in vivo, an influence of DNV feeding on the investigated molecular events could not be demonstrated.