Concurrent validity of Preschooler Gross Motor Quality Scale with Test of Gross Motor Development-2

The Impact of Gross Motor Skills on the Development of Emotion Understanding in Children Aged 3-6 Years: The Mediation Role of Executive Functions

This study investigates the impact of gross motor skills on the development of emotion understanding and the role of executive function in the relation between gross motor skills and emotion understanding. A total of 662 children were tested for gross motor skills, emotion understanding, and executive function. Regression analysis showed that gross motor skills were significantly related to executive function. Multiple regression analyses showed that gross motor skills and executive function were significant predictors for emotion understanding. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that executive function mediated the impact of gross motor skills on emotion understanding. Gross motor skills contributed to emotion understanding by improving children's executive function. The findings imply that a pathway from gross motor skills to emotion understanding is mediated by executive function, which offers a novel perspective on the developmental mechanisms of children's emotion understanding.

Developing a Scale for Measuring the Fundamental Movement Skills of Preschool Children in China

Children aged 3-6 years (preschool children hereafter) are in a critical and sensitive period of developing fundamental movement skills (FMS). While appropriate measurement tools can accurately evaluate their FMS development, such a scale is lacking in China. In this study, a suitable scale for measuring the FMS of preschool children in China was developed by combining process- and results-oriented evaluation methods. The subjects of this cross-sectional study included 21 experts and 358 preschool children (188 boys and 170 girls). Based on a literature review, items suitable for measuring the FMS of preschool children in China were selected, and the final measurement scale includes 12 items in three dimensions: physical locomotion skills, object control skills, and physical stability skills. After a battery of tests to assess its suitability, including inter-rater reliability, test/retest reliability, homogeneity, and construct validity, we find that the proposed measurement scale has good reliability, validity, and sensitivity. This scale reflects the development level of the FMS of preschool children in China and can be used to monitor the FMS of this population in the future.

Investigation of the motor skills assessments of typically developing preschool children in China

Background

The assessment of preschoolers’ motor skills is essential to know young children’s motor development and evaluate the intervention effects of promotion in children’s sports activities. The purpose of this study was to review the motor skills assessment tools in Chinese pre-school-aged children, compare them in the international context, and provide guidelines to find appropriate motor skill assessment tools for developing children in China.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search was carried out using the WANFAGN, CNKI, VIP, ERIC, EMBASE, MEDLINE, and SPORT Discus databases. Relevant articles published between January 2000 and May 2020 were retrieved. Studies that described the discriminative and evaluative measures of motor skills among the population aged 3–6 years in China were included.

Results

A total of 17 studies were included in this study describing seven tools, including four self-developed tools and three international tools used in China. TGMD-2 appeared in a large proportion of the studies. The international tools used in China were incomplete in terms of translation, verification of reliability and validity, item selection, and implementation. Regarding the self-constructed tools, the CDCC was the most utilized self-developed tool, but it was mainly applied in intellectual development assessment. By comparing Chinese self-constructed and international tools, the construction of the CDCC and the Gross Motor Development Assessment Scale contained relatively complete development steps. However, the test content, validity and reliability, implementation instruction, and generalizability of self-constructed tools are still lacking.

Conclusions

Both international and self-developed motor skills assessment tools have been rarely applied in China. Available tools lack enough validation and appropriate adjustments. Cultural differences in motor development between Chinese and Western populations should be considered when constructing a Chinese localized motor skill assessment tool.

Relationship of Quantitative Measures of Jumping Performance with Gross Motor Development in Typically Developed Preschool Children

Jumping is a key movement developing in the preschool period, but limited studies have reported the determinants of jumping performance and its relationship with gross motor development. This study aimed to determine the correlations among jumping performance, quantitative parameters of jumping, and gross motor development in preschool children. Twenty-one preschool children were recruited from one kindergarten, and fifteen of them with complete data were further analyzed. The quantitative parameters of standing long jump (SLJ) and standing vertical jump (SVJ) were measured using a video-based motion capture system. The gross motor development was measured using the Preschooler Gross Motor Quality Scale (PGMQ). The Spearman’s rho value and a linear regression model were used to determine the relationships among the jumping performance, the quantitative measures, and the total PGMQ scores. The results indicate that the jumping performances were significantly correlated with the takeoff velocity, which was predicted by trunk inclination before takeoff in SLJ and by the ranges of trunk inclination during jumping in SVJ. Regression analysis showed that the preschool children with higher normalized jump height had better gross motor development, and that the jump performance and the gross motor development were directly or indirectly predicted by the slope of the hip-to-ankle angle plot during pre-takeoff. In conclusion, this study identifies key components of jumping in jumping performance and gross motor development in preschool children for physical education.

Validity and reliability evidence for motor competence assessments in children and adolescents: A systematic review

Valid and reliable tests of motor competence are necessary to allow researchers and practitioners to quantify levels of motor competence, identify skill deficiencies, and determine the effectiveness of motor skill interventions. The primary study aim was to systematically review the validity and reliability of scores derived from gross motor competence tests for typically developing child and adolescent populations. The secondary aim of this review was to identify the most prevalent motor skills assessed across all instruments. A search of seven electronic databases identified 57 different skill assessment tools from 107 studies. Construct validity was the most common measurement property examined (60 studies; 56%). Content validity (21 studies; 20%) was the least commonly explored measurement property. Scores derived from the Test of Gross Motor Development - second and third edition had the most support for validity and reliability. The most common skills included in these skill batteries were the overhand throw (n = 33), catch (n = 32), jump (n = 31) and hop (n = 26). Research efforts should focus on: (1) further investigation of measurement properties of existing tools rather than developing new assessments and (2) further investigation of existing tools and their measurement properties in adolescent populations.

High-level motor skills assessment for ambulant children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review and decision tree

AIM

To examine the psychometric evidence for high-level motor skills assessment tools for ambulant, school-aged children with cerebral palsy (CP).

METHOD

We searched five databases for population (children with CP aged 5-18y in Gross Motor Function Classification System levels I and II), assessment focus (high-level motor skills), and psychometric evidence. We evaluated evidence strength using the number of studies, quality, and conduct according to COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health status Measurement INstruments checklists.

RESULTS

Eleven assessments (39 studies) met the criteria. Seven high-level motor skills assessment items (Muscle Power Sprint Test, 10m Shuttle Run Test, 10×5m Sprint Test, vertical jump, standing broad jump, seated throw, and Timed Up and Down Stairs) had strong validity and responsiveness evidence. Jumping items and seated throw lacked reliability data. Four high-level motor skills assessment batteries (Functional Strength Measure in CP, Gross Motor Function Measure-Challenge, Peabody Developmental Motor Scale, and Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition) had moderate-to-strong validity and/or reliability evidence. Responsiveness data were only available for the Gross Motor Function Measure-Challenge battery. The decision tree was developed with five levels: clinical feasibility, relevance, tool design, clinical utility, and psychometric properties.

INTERPRETATION

High-level motor skills assessment tools have strong psychometric evidence for ambulant, school-aged children with CP. The decision tree can assist clinicians and researchers in identifying appropriate tools to measure high-level motor skills.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

An evidence-based decision tree guides the selection of appropriate high-level motor skills assessment tools. Seven high-level motor skills assessment items have strong psychometric evidence and clinical utility for ambulant children with cerebral palsy. Four high-level motor skills assessment batteries with recreation and mobility items have emerging psychometric evidence in this population.

Performance of school-aged children with cerebral palsy at GMFCS levels I and II on high-level, sports-focussed gross motor assessments

PURPOSE

To investigate performance of children with cerebral palsy (CP) at GMFCS Levels I-II on sports-focussed gross motor assessments; and concurrent validity of mainstream and CP-specific high-level assessment batteries and field tests.

METHODS

Fifty-four children (6-12 years) with CP at GMFCS I-II completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-second edition, Gross Motor Function Measure-Challenge Module, Muscle Power Sprint Test (MPST), 10 × 5 m Sprint Test (10 × 5 mST), Vertical Jump, Broad Jump, and Seated Throw. Correlations between measures, age and mobility level, and group differences between age and mobility level were examined and content analysis performed.

RESULTS

Children at GMFCS I demonstrated significantly higher gross motor assessment battery scores than children at GMFCS II (U = 73.5-109.0, p < 0.001). Performance improved with age for children at Level I but not II. Children with higher overall motor scores scored higher on running (MPST, 10 × 5 mST, r = -0.516 to -0.816, p < 0.001), jumping (Vertical Jump, Broad Jump, r = 0.499-0.774, p < 0.001) and throwing (Seated Throw, r = 0.341-0.500, p = 0.012 < 0.001) field tests.

CONCLUSIONS

High-level gross motor assessments were achievable and appropriately challenging for children with CP at GMFCS I-II. Scores discriminated between performance and were associated with mobility level. Concurrent validity was established between gross motor assessment batteries, and locomotor field tests.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONFor children with cerebral palsy at GMFCS I-II, sports-focussed assessments should be used to assess high-level gross motor function.The Gross Motor Function Measure-Challenge and Test of Gross Motor Development demonstrate no ceiling for children with cerebral palsy at GMFCS I-II.Single-item running and jumping field tests provide targeted skill assessment and estimate sports skills for children with cerebral palsy.

Association Between Motor Skills and Musculoskeletal Physical Fitness Among Preschoolers

OBJECTIVE

Previous work is conflicted regarding the relationship between motor skill development and physical activity. One potential explanation for this equivocality is the difficulty and lack of precision in physical activity measurement, particularly within preschool populations. Our exploration of plank performance as a proxy measure for fitness addresses a void in the literature, as few studies have investigated the role of motor skill development on fitness. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential relationship between motor skill level and musculoskeletal endurance (via the plank test).

METHODS

Data from the 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey were used, which included 224 preschool-aged children (3-5 years). Motor skill level was assessed from the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition (TGMD2). Motor skill parameters included general motor skills, locomotor skills, and object control skills.

RESULTS

Within this nationally representative sample of preschoolers, increased motor skills were positively associated with plank performance [General Motor Skills (β = 0.45; 95% CI 0.31-0.59), locomotor skills (β = 1.88; 95% CI 1.15-2.61), and object control skills (β = 2.05; 95% CI 1.11-2.98)].

CONCLUSION

Motor skill level in this national preschool sample was associated with musculoskeletal endurance. Thus, future interventions should aim to develop and refine motor skills among preschoolers.

Multi-Teaching Styles Approach and Active Reflection: Effectiveness in Improving Fitness Level, Motor Competence, Enjoyment, Amount of Physical Activity, and Effects on the Perception of Physical Education Lessons in Primary School Children

Physical education (PE) researchers sustain that the teaching styles adopted by PE teachers play a key role in defining children’s positive experiences during lessons and have a relevant impact on their psychophysical health. However, a limited number of studies has examined the effect of teaching styles on these aspects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an integrated approach mainly based on integration of multi-teaching styles and active reflection (MTA) on the fitness level, motor competence, enjoyment, self-perception, amount of physical activity (PA), and children’s perception of PE, in Italian primary school children. Participants were 121 children from three elementary schools. Children were randomly assigned into two groups: (a) an intervention group (IG) that received PE lessons based on MTA provided by specifically trained PE students, and (b) a control group (CG) that received standard PE lessons (S-PE) from primary school classroom teachers. Both groups engaged in two PE lessons per week lasting 1 h each for 12 weeks. The findings revealed an increase in the children’s fitness level, motor competence, enjoyment and amount of PA in the IG compared to those in the CG. Furthermore, the children of the IG spent more time being engaged on a task, reflecting on it, and wasted less time during PE compared to the children of the CG. Finally, the children of the IG reported higher levels of satisfaction with PE lessons and teaching styles compared to children of the CG. Integration of different teaching styles lead by specifically trained educators can be suggested as a valuable strategy to provide learning experiences of children of primary school to have positive effects on their physical literacy development promoting healthy lifestyles.

The feasibility of fundamental movement skill assessments for pre-school aged children

Fundamental movement skill (FMS) assessment in preschools allows for early intervention; however it is unclear what assessments are feasible. The purpose of this review is to systematically review the feasibility of FMS assessments for pre-school aged children. The search was conducted across four databases, MEDLINE, Scopus, ERIC and SportsDiscus. Search terms included synonyms of "fundamental movement skills" and "pre-school children". Inclusion criteria were: (i) FMS assessment; (ii) feasibility data; (iii) assessment of children aged three to six years; (iv) assessment of typically developing children; and (v) peer reviewed full text publications in English. Feasibility concepts (administration time, equipment, space, assessment type, item, training, qualification) were each coded as 'poor = 1', 'average = 2' and 'good = 3'; potential total of 21. A total of 330 full text articles were considered but a quarter (n = 86) were excluded due to no feasibility data. Sixty-five studies using 13 different FMS assessments were included. The Athletic Skills Track and DEMOST-PRE assessments were most feasible (18/21) and the Test of Gross Motor Development and Movement Assessment Battery for Children were common but among the least feasible (12-14/21). This review allows pre-school staff to choose a FMS assessment based on feasibility. Future studies need to present feasibility of assessments.

SPORTS STARS study protocol: a randomised, controlled trial of the effectiveness of a physiotherapist-led modified sport intervention for ambulant school-aged children with cerebral palsy

BACKGROUND

Modified sport interventions run by physiotherapists have shown potential as cost-effective, engaging, and effective interventions to improve gross motor skills and support transition to real-world sports participation for children with cerebral palsy. At present, this population demonstrates decreased participation in physical activities and sport compared to peers due to barriers ranging from body function to accessibility challenges. Sport provides culturally relevant opportunities for social integration, community participation and physical activity and has been shown to improve the fitness, self-esteem, confidence and quality of life of children with disabilities. The Sports Stars physiotherapy group has been designed to support the development of a range of fundamental movement and sports skills through activity skill practice and participation in modified popular Australian sports.

METHODS

This randomised, waitlist controlled, assessor blinded, superiority trial with two parallel groups will aim to compare the effectiveness of Sports Stars to standard care across all ICF domains. Children in the Sports Stars group are expected to demonstrate greater improvement in their individually-selected, sports related goals measured by the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure. This study will aim to assess sixty ambulant children aged six to 12 years with a diagnosis of cerebral palsy. Children will be excluded if they have had recent Botox or neurological/orthopaedic surgery. The Sports Stars intervention includes eight, one-hour, weekly physiotherapy group sessions with four to six participants and one lead physiotherapist. Outcome measures will be collected pre, post and 12 weeks post the immediate Sports Stars group to assess change immediately after, and at follow up time points.

DISCUSSION

This will be the first study of its kind to investigate a culturally relevant sports-focussed fundamental movement skills physiotherapy group for ambulant children with cerebral palsy. The findings will add to a growing pool of evidence supporting group physiotherapy for children with cerebral palsy and the Sports Stars group will provide an avenue for children to transition from individual physiotherapy to mainstream and modified recreational and competitive sports.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN12617000313336 Registered 28, February 2017. WHO Universal Trial Number: U1111-1189-3355 Registered 1, November 2016.

Inter- and Intrarater Reliabilities of the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition Among Experienced TGMD-2 Raters

The purpose of this study was to examine the inter- and intrarater reliabilities of the Test of Gross Motor Development-third edition (TGMD-3). The TGMD-3 was administered to 10 typically developing children. Five raters with experience using the Test of Gross Motor Development-second edition (TGMD-2) scored the digitally recorded performances and then rescored the same performances after a period of 2 weeks. Intraclass correlation (ICC) was used to examine both inter- and intrarater reliabilities of scores. Interrater reliability for the total score, locomotor subscale, and ball skills subscale (ICC: 0.92-0.96) were all excellent, while individual skills (ICC: 0.51-0.93) had fair-to-excellent reliability. Intrarater reliability across all raters was also excellent (ICC: 0.77-0.98) but varied widely for individual raters (ICC: 0.28-1.00) including multiple examples of poor reliability. While raters experienced with the TGMD-2 can produce consistent scores for TGMD-3 total scale and subscales, additional training is needed to improve skill-specific reliability.

Motor Skills and Free-Living Physical Activity Showed No Association Among Preschoolers in 2012 U.S. National Youth Fitness Survey

Albeit limited, some emerging work, using convenience-based samples, has demonstrated that greater motor skill development is associated with higher physical activity among preschool-aged children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate this topic using data from the 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey that included 329 preschool-aged children (3–5 years). Parents proxy-reported their child’s physical activity, with motor skill level assessed from the Test of Gross Motor Development—Second Edition (TGMD2). Motor skill levels (Gross Motor Quotient, locomotor or object control) were not associated with preschool free-living physical activity in any analytic model. Thus, in this large sample of preschoolers, contrary to research with older children, motor skill level was not associated with physical activity. Findings are discussed in terms of study limitations of (a) a reliance on parent report of children’s physical activity levels and (b) the possibility that physical activity data within the national survey were too limited in range to show possible associations to motor skill development with higher levels of free-living physical activity in preschoolers.

Development and use of an observation tool for active gaming and movement (OTAGM) to measure children's movement skill components during active video game play

This article presents a direct observational tool for assessing children's body movements and movement skills during active video games. The Observation Tool of Active Gaming and Movement (OTGAM) was informed by the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. 18 elementary school children (12 boys, 6 girls; M age = 6.1 yr., SD = 0.9) were observed during Nintendo Wii game play. Using the OTAGM, researchers were able to capture and quantify the children's body movements and movement skills during active play of video games. Furthermore, the OTAGM captured specific components of object control skills: strike, throw, and roll. Game designers, health promotion practitioners, and researchers could use this information to enhance children's physical activity and movement skills.