Motor impairments screened by the movement assessment battery for children-2 are related to the visual-perceptual deficits in children with developmental coordination disorder

Do Gender and BMI Affect the Motor Skills of Five-Year-Old Preschoolers Differently?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Weight gain is associated with numerous health complications and constitutes a serious public health problem. Motor competence (MC) can be a protective factor since children's participation and practice in physical activities can improve their health. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of gender and BMI on MC [i.e., manual dexterity (MD), aiming and catching (A&C), balance (Bal), and total MC percentile (TP)] depending on gender (boy/girl) and BMI (normal weight, overweight or obesity).

METHODS

The MABC-2 battery was applied in a sample of 368 preschool children (5.69 ± 0.28 years of age; 54.9% girls).

RESULTS

Boys and girls showed statistically significant differences in MC components: boys had higher scores in A&C (p = 0.002), while girls excelled in MD (p < 0.001), Bal (p = 0.035); TP (p < 0.001), and BMI [Bal (p = 0.009); TP (p = 0.050)], with a higher percentile in those children with overweight in both cases. Statistically significant differences were also found in the interactions between gender*BMI [MD (p < 0.001) and TP (p < 0.001)].

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed that there were notable variations in total percentile, balance, and manual dexterity between boys and girls. In addition, girls outperformed boys in all categories save aiming and catching. However, males who were overweight or obese earned greater percentiles in both balance and the MABC-2 battery's total percentile.

Motor Skills and Visual Deficits in Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a developmental disorder in which numerous comorbidities seem to coexist, such as motor and visual impairment and some executive functions; Methods: A narrative review on motor and visual deficits in children with DCD was carried out; Results and Discussion: Fine and gross motor skills are affected in children with DCD. In addition, they seem to be related to visual deficits, such as difficulty in visual perception, sensory processing and visual memory. Limitations have also been found in accommodation. Interventions in children with DCD should be aimed at improving both aspects, since vision affects motor skills and vice versa; Conclusions: In children with DCD, who present a marked deficit in global shape processing, it causes an association between deficiencies in visual perception and motor skills.

Cognitive, perceptual, and motor profiles of school-aged children with developmental coordination disorder

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a heterogeneous condition. Besides motor impairments, children with DCD often exhibit poor visual perceptual skills and executive functions. This study aimed to characterize the motor, perceptual, and cognitive profiles of children with DCD at the group level and in terms of subtypes. A total of 50 children with DCD and 31 typically developing (TD) peers (7–11 years old) underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological (15 tests) and motor (three subscales of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2) assessment. The percentage of children with DCD showing impairments in each measurement was first described. Hierarchical agglomerative and K-means iterative partitioning clustering analyses were then performed to distinguish the subtypes present among the complete sample of children (DCD and TD) in a data-driven way. Moderate to large percentages of children with DCD showed impaired executive functions (92%) and praxis (meaningless gestures and postures, 68%), as well as attentional (52%), visual perceptual (46%), and visuomotor (36%) skills. Clustering analyses identified five subtypes, four of them mainly consisting of children with DCD and one of TD children. These subtypes were characterized by: (i) generalized impairments (8 children with DCD), (ii) impaired manual dexterity, poor balance (static/dynamic), planning, and alertness (15 DCD and 1 TD child), (iii) impaired manual dexterity, cognitive inhibition, and poor visual perception (11 children with DCD), (iv) impaired manual dexterity and cognitive inhibition (15 DCD and 5 TD children), and (v) no impairment (25 TD and 1 child with DCD). Besides subtle differences, the motor and praxis measures did not enable to discriminate between the four subtypes of children with DCD. The subtypes were, however, characterized by distinct perceptual or cognitive impairments. These results highlight the importance of assessing exhaustively the perceptual and cognitive skills of children with DCD.

Effect of Wii Fit training on visual perception and executive function in boys with developmental coordination disorders: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

This paper elucidated the influence of Wii Fit training on visual perception and executive function in boys with developmental coordination disorders (DCD).

METHODS

50 school boy with DCD (Mean Age = 9.55 ± 2.24) were randomly assigned to one of two groups, Wii Fit training (intervention; n = 25) or usual school program (control; n = 25). Visual perception and executive function were measured pre-, post- (8 weeks, 3 sessions per week, 30 minute per session), using Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) and Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills-Revised (TVPS-R), respectively. Pre- and post-test changes in executive function and visual perception were calculated using one-way ANCOVA, with pre-test values as covariate and post-test values as dependent variables.

RESULTS

The findings show that the rates of change in total score of visual perception from pre to post were significantly different between groups (F(1, 47) = 660.76, P = 0.024). Similarly, intervention group showed significantly different rates of change in total score of executive function from pre to post (F (1, 47) = 26.15, P = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

Findings support that when developing interventions for the improvement or management of visual perception and executive function in children with DCD, key stakeholders should include the Wii Fit training programs.

Cognitive Profiles of Children with Low Motor Performance: A Contribution to the Validation of the WPPSI-IV

(1) Background: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a common developmental disorder of preschool age. Children often show cognitive deficits in addition to motor problems. Various studies point in particular to problems in visual perception, working memory and processing speed. In this context, it is investigated whether the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale-IV (WPPSI-IV) is a suitable instrument for mapping these deficits in a valid and economical way. (2) Methods: The WPPSI-IV profiles of children with DCD (n = 12), below-average motor performance (n = 22) and a control group (n = 32) were compared. (3) Results: Children with DCD achieved significantly poorer test performance in the primary indices Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Processing Speed and Full Scale compared to a control group. Children with below-average motor skills, on the other hand, do not differ from the children in the control group. (4) Conclusions: The WPPSI-IV is a suitable instrument for diagnosing cognitive deficits in the context of DCD. The Fluid Reasoning and Verbal Comprehension indices should be used as a supplement to assess cognitive performance levels.

Atypical resting-state functional brain connectivity in children with developmental coordination disorder

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) present lower abilities to acquire and execute coordinated motor skills. DCD is frequently associated with visual perceptual (with or without motor component) impairments. This magnetoencephalography (MEG) study compares the brain resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and spectral power of children with and without DCD. 29 children with DCD and 28 typically developing (TD) peers underwent 2 × 5 min of resting-state MEG. Band-limited power envelope correlation and spectral power were compared between groups using a functional connectome of 59 nodes from eight resting-state networks. Correlation coefficients were calculated between fine and gross motor activity, visual perceptual and visuomotor abilities measures on the one hand, and brain rsFC and spectral power on the other hand. Nonparametric statistics were used. Significantly higher rsFC between nodes of the visual, attentional, frontoparietal, default-mode and cerebellar networks was observed in the alpha (maximum statistics, p = .0012) and the low beta (p = .0002) bands in children with DCD compared to TD peers. Lower visuomotor performance (copying figures) was associated with stronger interhemispheric rsFC within sensorimotor areas and power in the cerebellum (right lobule VIII). Children with DCD showed increased rsFC mainly in the dorsal extrastriate visual brain system and the cerebellum. However, this increase was not associated with their coordinated motor/visual perceptual abilities. This enhanced functional brain connectivity could thus reflect a characteristic brain trait of children with DCD compared to their TD peers. Moreover, an interhemispheric compensatory process might be at play to perform visuomotor task within the normative range.

Differences on Motor Competence in 4-Year-Old Boys and Girls Regarding the Quarter of Birth: Is There a Relative Age Effect?

The aim of this study was to evaluate the differences on motor competence between boys and girls aged 4 years old and investigate the existence of Relative Age Effect on their motor competence. In total, 132 preschool children were evaluated, of whom 60 (45.50%) were girls and 72 (54.5%) were boys. The distribution of the participants was from quarter 1 [n = 28 (21.2%)], quarter 2 [n = 52 (39.4%)], quarter 3 [n = 24 (18.2%)], and quarter 4 [(n = 28 (21.2%)], respectively. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect the data. The data show the main effects on quarter of birth factor in manual dexterity (MD; p < 0.001), in aiming and catching (A&C; p < 0.001), in balance (Bal; p < 0.001) and in total test score (TTS; p < 0.001). There are also statistical differences on gender factor in MD (p < 0.001) and in TTS (p = 0.031). A significant effect was also found in the interaction between two factors (gender and quarter of birth) in MD (p < 0.001), A&C (p < 0.001), and Bal (p < 0.001). There are differences in all the variables studied according to the quarter of birth and only in manual dexterity and in the total score if compared according to gender (the scores are higher in girls).

The impact of choice of norms on classification of motor impairment for children born very preterm

BACKGROUND

The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (Movement ABC-2) is widely used to assess children's motor function, yet there is a lack of normative data for many countries.

AIMS

To assess the extent to which the application of different population reference norms for the Movement ABC-2 affects the classification and prevalence of motor impairment.

DESIGN

Data were obtained from two Portuguese regions participating in the Screening to Improve Health in Very Preterm Infants in Europe (SHIPS) Study, which was a five year follow-up of a cohort of children born at <32 weeks' gestation in 2011-2012 in 19 regions in 11 European countries. Perinatal data were extracted from medical records and the Movement ABC-2 was administered at five years of age.

SUBJECTS

Of 542 Portuguese children eligible for the five-year follow-up, 413 (76.2%) were evaluated.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Movement ABC-2 raw scores were converted to standardized scores using norms from four countries with national standardisations (UK, Netherlands/Belgium, France and Italy).

RESULTS

The prevalence of significant movement difficulties (total score ≤ 5th percentile) was 28.5% using Dutch/Flemish norms, 23.3% using French norms, 16.5% using UK norms and 11.4% using Italian norms; 10.8% and 68.3% of the children were consistently classified as having significant movement difficulties and as not having significant movement difficulties, respectively, according to any norms. However, for 20.9% of children there was a disagreement in motor function status using different norms.

CONCLUSION

The use of different test norms has a large impact on the proportion of children classified with significant movement difficulties, with implications for clinical referrals, healthcare costs and research. Our results underscore the importance of using appropriately validated tests with sound psychometric properties, and raise questions about the large differences in norms for the Movement ABC-2 in European countries.

An evaluation of the Movement ABC-2 Test for use in Italy: A comparison of data from Italy and the UK

BACKGROUND

The standardized test within the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2) is used worldwide to assess motor problems in children. Ideally, any country using a test developed in another country should produce national norms to ensure that it functions effectively in the new context.

AIM

The first objective of this study was to explore the differences in motor performance between Italian and British children. The second was to examine the structural validity of the test for the Italian sample.

METHOD

A total of 718 Italian (IT) and 765 British (UK) children, aged 3-10 years, were individually tested on the age-appropriate items of the MABC-2 Test.

RESULTS

Developmental trends emerged on every task and differences between IT and UK children were obtained on 11 of 27 task comparisons. Interactions between age and country indicated that differences were not consistently in favor of one culture. Confirmatory factor analysis generally supported the proposed structure of the MABC-2 Test.

CONCLUSION

Although the differences between the IT and the UK children were relatively few, those that did emerge emphasize the need for population specific norms and suggest that cultural diversity in motor experiences should be considered when evaluating motor abilities in children.

Receptive language is associated with visual perception in typically developing children and sensorimotor skills in autism spectrum conditions

A number of studies have evidenced marked difficulties in language in autism spectrum conditions (ASC). Studies have also shown that language and word knowledge are associated with the same area of brain that is also responsible for visual perception in typically developing (TD) individuals. However, in ASC, research suggests word meaning is mapped differently, on to situational sensorimotor components within the brain. Furthermore, motor coordination is associated with communication skills. The current study explores whether motor coordination and visual perception are impaired in children with ASC, and whether difficulties in coordination and visual perception correlate with receptive language levels. 36 children took part: 18 with ASC and 18 TD children, matched on age and non-verbal reasoning. Both groups completed the Movement ABC, Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, British Picture Vocabulary Scale and Matrices (WASI). Results showed that ASC children scored significantly lower on receptive language, coordination and visual motor integration than the TD group. In the TD group receptive language significantly correlated with visual perception; in the ASC group receptive language significantly correlated with balance. These results imply that sensorimotor skills are associated with the understanding of language in ASC and thus the relationship between sensorimotor experiences and language warrants further investigation.

Umschriebene motorische Entwicklungsstörungen (UEMF)

Zusammenfassung. Die umschriebene Entwicklungsstörung der motorischen Funktionen (UEMF) zählt zu den häufigsten Entwicklungsabweichungen des Kindesalters. Charakteristisch sind Defizite der Fein- und Grobmotorik, denen ursächlich keine sensorischen, neurologischen oder kognitiven Einschränkungen zugrunde liegen. Verschiedene Studien belegen, dass Kinder mit einer UEMF auch kognitive Defizite in der visuellen Wahrnehmung, in ihren Aufmerksamkeits- und Arbeitsgedächtnisleistungen aufweisen. Das Ziel ist es daher, den Einfluss dieser kognitiven Teilleistungsdefizite auf die Intelligenzleistungen von Kindern mit UEMF zu untersuchen und zu überprüfen, ob Kinder mit UEMF ein spezifisches Intelligenzprofil aufweisen. Die Datenbanken Web of Science und PubMed wurden entsprechend nach deutsch- und englischsprachigen Beiträgen für den Zeitraum 2007 bis 2017 durchsucht. Lediglich fünf Studien erfüllten die Auswahlkriterien. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass Kinder mit einer UEMF geringere Testleistungen im Gesamt-IQ aufweisen. Auf Skalenebene konnten insbesondere geringere Testleistungen in der Handlungsskala der WPPSI-III bzw. dem Wahrnehmungsgebundenen Logischen Denken der WISC-IV sowie in der Verarbeitungsgeschwindigkeit nachgewiesen werden. Die sprachlichen Leistungen der Kinder mit UEMF scheinen zumindest ab dem Grundschulalter unbeeinträchtigt. Testverfahren, die auf den Wechsler-Skalen basieren, stellen ein ökonomisches Instrument dar, um kognitive Leistungsdefizite orientierend im Zusammenhang mit einer UEMF abzubilden.

Cognitive and neuroimaging findings in developmental coordination disorder: new insights from a systematic review of recent research

AIM

To better understand the neural and performance factors that may underlie developmental coordination disorder (DCD), and implications for a multi-component account.

METHOD

A systematic review of the experimental literature published between June 2011 and September 2016 was conducted using a modified PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcomes, and study type) framework. A total of 106 studies were included.

RESULTS

Behavioural data from 91 studies showed a broad cluster of deficits in the anticipatory control of movement, basic processes of motor learning, and cognitive control. Importantly, however, performance issues in DCD were often shown to be moderated by task type and difficulty. As well, we saw new evidence of compensatory processes and strategies in several studies. Neuroimaging data (15 studies, including electroencephalography) showed reduced cortical thickness in the right medial orbitofrontal cortex and altered brain activation patterns across functional networks involving prefrontal, parietal, and cerebellar regions in children with DCD than those in comparison groups. Data from diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging suggested reduced white matter organization involving sensorimotor structures and altered structural connectivity across the whole brain network.

INTERPRETATION

Taken together, results support the hypothesis that children with DCD show differences in brain structure and function compared with typically developing children. Behaviourally, these differences may affect anticipatory planning and reduce automatization of movement skill, prompting greater reliance on slower feedback-based control and compensatory strategies. Implications for future research, theory development, and clinical practice are discussed.