1
|
Dong H, Shao X, Hancox S, McBeath ST, Tarpeh WA, Hoffmann MR. Understanding the Catalytic Active Sites of Crystalline CoSb xO y for Electrochemical Chlorine Evolution. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:40369-40377. [PMID: 37594304 PMCID: PMC10472335 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c05016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
The chlorine evolution reaction (CER) is a key reaction in electrochemical oxidation (EO) of water treatment. Conventional anodes based on platinum group metals can be prohibitively expensive, which hinders further application of EO systems. Crystalline cobalt antimonate (CoSbxOy) was recently identified as a promising alternative to conventional anodes due to its high catalytic activity and stability in acidic media. However, its catalytic sites and reaction mechanism have not yet been elucidated. This study sheds light on the catalytically active sites in crystalline CoSbxOy anodes by using scanning electrochemical microscopy to compare the CER catalytic activities of a series of anode samples with different bulk Sb/Co ratios (from 1.43 to 2.80). The results showed that Sb sites served as more active catalytic sites than the Co sites. The varied Sb/Co ratios were also linked with slightly different electronic states of each element, leading to different CER selectivities in 30 mM chloride solutions under 10 mA cm-2 current density. The high activity of Sb sites toward the CER highlighted the significance of the electronic polarization that changed the oxidation states of Co and Sb.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heng Dong
- Linde
Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Xiaohan Shao
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Shane Hancox
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Sean T. McBeath
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - William A. Tarpeh
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Michael R. Hoffmann
- Linde
Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Watabe S, Lohman HAC, Li Y, Morgan VL, Rowles LS, Stephen T, Shyu HY, Bair RA, Castro CJ, Cusick RD, Yeh DH, Guest JS. Advancing the Economic and Environmental Sustainability of the NEWgenerator Nonsewered Sanitation System. ACS ENVIRONMENTAL AU 2023; 3:209-222. [PMID: 37483306 PMCID: PMC10360206 DOI: 10.1021/acsenvironau.3c00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Achieving safely managed sanitation and resource recovery in areas that are rural, geographically challenged, or experiencing rapidly increasing population density may not be feasible with centralized facilities due to space requirements, site-specific concerns, and high costs of sewer installation. Nonsewered sanitation (NSS) systems have the potential to provide safely managed sanitation and achieve strict wastewater treatment standards. One such NSS treatment technology is the NEWgenerator, which includes an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR), nutrient recovery via ion exchange, and electrochlorination. The system has been shown to achieve robust treatment of real waste for over 100 users, but the technology's relative life cycle sustainability remains unclear. This study characterizes the financial viability and life cycle environmental impacts of the NEWgenerator and prioritizes opportunities to advance system sustainability through targeted improvements and deployment. The costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the NEWgenerator (general case) leveraging grid electricity were 0.139 [0.113-0.168] USD cap-1 day-1 and 79.7 [55.0-112.3] kg CO2-equiv cap-1 year-1, respectively. A transition to photovoltaic-generated electricity would increase costs to 0.145 [0.118-0.181] USD cap-1 day-1 but decrease GHG emissions to 56.1 [33.8-86.2] kg CO2-equiv cap-1 year-1. The deployment location analysis demonstrated reduced median costs for deployment in China (-38%), India (-53%), Senegal (-31%), South Africa (-31%), and Uganda (-35%), but at comparable or increased GHG emissions (-2 to +16%). Targeted improvements revealed the relative change in median cost and GHG emissions to be -21 and -3% if loading is doubled (i.e., doubled users per unit), -30 and -12% with additional sludge drying, and +9 and -25% with the addition of a membrane contactor, respectively, with limited benefits (0-5% reductions) from an alternative photovoltaic battery, low-cost housing, or improved frontend operation. This research demonstrates that the NEWgenerator is a low-cost, low-emission NSS treatment technology with the potential for resource recovery to increase access to safe sanitation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shion Watabe
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Hannah A. C. Lohman
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Yalin Li
- Institute
for Sustainability, Energy, and Environment, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 1101 W. Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Victoria L. Morgan
- Institute
for Sustainability, Energy, and Environment, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 1101 W. Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Lewis S. Rowles
- Institute
for Sustainability, Energy, and Environment, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 1101 W. Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Tyler Stephen
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Hsiang-Yang Shyu
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Robert A. Bair
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Cynthia J. Castro
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Roland D. Cusick
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Daniel H. Yeh
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Jeremy S. Guest
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Institute
for Sustainability, Energy, and Environment, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 1101 W. Peabody Dr., Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhang W, Chu H, Yang L, You X, Yu Z, Zhang Y, Zhou X. Technologies for pollutant removal and resource recovery from blackwater: a review. FRONTIERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 2023; 17:83. [PMID: 36776490 PMCID: PMC9898867 DOI: 10.1007/s11783-023-1683-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Blackwater (BW), consisting of feces, urine, flushing water and toilet paper, makes up an important portion of domestic wastewater. The improper disposal of BW may lead to environmental pollution and disease transmission, threatening the sustainable development of the world. Rich in nutrients and organic matter, BW could be treated for resource recovery and reuse through various approaches. Aimed at providing guidance for the future development of BW treatment and resource recovery, this paper presented a literature review of BWs produced in different countries and types of toilets, including their physiochemical characteristics, and current treatment and resource recovery strategies. The degradation and utilization of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) within BW are underlined. The performance of different systems was classified and summarized. Among all the treating systems, biological and ecological systems have been long and widely applied for BW treatment, showing their universality and operability in nutrients and energy recovery, but they are either slow or ineffective in removal of some refractory pollutants. Novel processes, especially advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), are becoming increasingly extensively studied in BW treatment because of their high efficiency, especially for the removal of micropollutants and pathogens. This review could serve as an instructive guidance for the design and optimization of BW treatment technologies, aiming to help in the fulfilment of sustainable human excreta management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Huaqiang Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Libin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Xiaogang You
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Zhenjiang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Yalei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| | - Xuefei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cid CA, Abiola F, Starkl M. Can International Nonsewered Sanitation Standards Help Solve the Global Sanitation Crisis? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:699-706. [PMID: 34982549 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
To address one of the most severe global challenges affecting human health and the environment, two new voluntary product standards (ISO 30500 and ISO 31800) for nonsewered sanitation systems (NSSS) and fecal sludge treatment units (FSTUs) have been developed and published. While providing stringent voluntary product requirements for the containment and the treatment of human excreta with safe outputs (air, liquids, and solids), ISO 30500 and ISO 31800 make the inextricable connections between environmental emission thresholds, technical innovations, and sustainability aspects of NSSS and FSTUs. The purpose of this feature is to discuss these connections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clément A Cid
- Ronald and Maxine Linde Laboratory for Global Environmental Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Francine Abiola
- Interfaculty Center for Training and Environmental Research for Sustainable Development, University of Abomey-Calavi, 03 BP 1463 Jéricho, Cotonou, Benin
| | - Markus Starkl
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Gregor-Mendel-Strasse 33, 1180 Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Dobelle L, Kim S, LeVan AX, Leandri H, Hoffmann MR, Cid CA. Onsite Graywater Treatment in a Two-Stage Electro-Peroxone Reactor with a Partial Recycle of Treated Effluent. ACS ES&T ENGINEERING 2021; 1:1659-1667. [PMID: 34918011 PMCID: PMC8669644 DOI: 10.1021/acsestengg.1c00240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The efficacy of an uncoupled electro-peroxone (E-peroxone) prototype reactor system for the treatment of synthetic graywater is determined. The two-stage E-peroxone process integrates ozonation with the in situ production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in a first stage reactor before ozone (O3) is converted via the peroxone reaction to a hydroxyl radical (•OH). The two-stage prototype reactor system allows for the generation of H2O2 via cathodic oxygen reduction in the first-stage reactor before mixing with O3 in the second-stage reactor. This approach prevents the degradation of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) coated carbon cathodes by •OH that takes place in a single well-mixed reactor that combines electrochemical peroxide generation with O3. The dosage of H2O2 into the second-stage reactor is optimized to enhance graywater treatment. Under these conditions, the uncoupled E-peroxone system is capable of treating synthetic graywater with an initial chemical oxygen demand (COD0) of 358 mg O2/L, a total organic carbon (TOC0) of 96.9 mg/L, a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD0) of 162 mg O2/L, and a turbidity of 11.2 NTU. The two-stage electro-peroxone system can reduce the initial COD0 by 89%, the TOC0 by 91%, BOD0 by 86%, and the turbidity by 95% after 90 min of treatment. At this performance level, the reactor effluent is acceptable for discharge and for use in nonpotable applications such as toilet-water flushing. A portion of the effluent is recycled back into the first-stage reactor to minimize water consumption. Recycling can be repeated consecutively for four or more cycles, although the time required to achieve the desired H2O2 concentration increased slightly from one cycle to another. The two-stage E-peroxone system is shown to be potentially useful for onsite or decentralized graywater treatment suitable for arid water-sensitive areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Léopold Dobelle
- Department
of Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Seungkyeum Kim
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, California Institute
of Technology, 1200 E
California Blvd, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Axl X. LeVan
- Department
of Chemistry, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Hugo Leandri
- Department
of Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Michael R. Hoffmann
- Department
of Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Clément A. Cid
- Department
of Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Shyu HY, Bair RA, Castro CJ, Xaba L, Delgado-Navarro M, Sindall R, Cottingham R, Uman AE, Buckley CA, Yeh DH. The NEWgenerator TM non-sewered sanitation system: Long-term field testing at an informal settlement community in eThekwini municipality, South Africa. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 296:112921. [PMID: 34303262 PMCID: PMC8404038 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Globally, there is a dire need for a new class of advanced non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS) to provide onsite wastewater treatment that is capable of meeting stringent discharge or reuse criteria. These systems need to be simple to operate and maintain, reliable, and resilient to unreliable electrical service. The NEWgenerator (NG) is a compact, automated, solar-powered wastewater treatment system comprised of three major treatment processes: anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR), nutrient capture system (NCS) with ion exchange and carbon sorption, and electrochlorination (EC). The NG system operated at an informal settlement community in South Africa over a 534 d period, treating high-strength blackwater (BW) and yellow water (YW) from a public toilet facility. Over three test stages (BW, BW + YW, BW) that included several periods of dormancy, the NG system was able to provide a high level of removal of total suspended solids (97.6 ± 3.1%), chemical oxygen demand (94.5 ± 5.0%), turbidity (96.3 ± 9.7%), color (92.0 ± 10.5%), total nitrogen (82.1 ± 24.0%), total phosphorus (43.0 ± 22.1%), E. coli (7.4 ± 1.5 LRV, not detected in effluent), and helminth ova (not detected in effluent). The treatment levels met most of the ISO 30500 NSSS standard for liquid effluent and local water reuse criteria. A series of maintenance events were successfully conducted onsite over the 534 d field trial: two membrane cleanings, two NCS regenerations, and granular activated carbon replacement. Desludging, a major pain point for onsite sanitation systems, was unnecessary during the field trial and thereby not performed. The AnMBR performed well, removing 94.5 ± 5.0% of the influent COD across all three stages. The high COD removal rate is attributed to the sub-micron separation provided by the ultrafiltration membrane. The NCS was highly efficient at removing total nitrogen, residual COD and color, but the regeneration process was lengthy and is a topic of ongoing research. The EC provided effective disinfection, but frequent prolonged run cycles due to power supply and water quality issues upstream limited the overall system hydraulic throughput. This extended field trial under actual ambient conditions successfully demonstrated the feasibility of using advanced NSSS to address the global water and sanitation crises.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hsiang-Yang Shyu
- Membrane Biotechnology Lab, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Robert A Bair
- Membrane Biotechnology Lab, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Cynthia J Castro
- Membrane Biotechnology Lab, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Lindelani Xaba
- WASH R&D Centre (formerly Pollution Research Group), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | | | - Rebecca Sindall
- WASH R&D Centre (formerly Pollution Research Group), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | | | - A Erkan Uman
- Membrane Biotechnology Lab, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Christopher A Buckley
- WASH R&D Centre (formerly Pollution Research Group), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Daniel H Yeh
- Membrane Biotechnology Lab, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Yu L, Chen Z, Hu D, Ge H, Liu L, Liu Z, Liu H, Cui Y, Zhang W, Zou X, Zhang Y, Zhu Q. A novel low temperature aerobic technology with electrochemistry for treating pesticide wastewater: Compliance rate, mathematical models, economic and environmental benefit analysis. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 336:125285. [PMID: 34051570 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a novel combination system of the tapered variable diameter biological fluidized bed (TVDBFB) with electrochemistry (EC) has been developed and its performances are investigated at different seasons. The results showed that the COD removal efficiency of TVDBFB increased from 61% to 67% and compliance rate increased from 84% to 88% when the carrier packing rate increased from 15% to 30% and temperature was 12 ℃. However, COD removal efficiency and compliance rate increased to 87% and 100% when EC was a post treatment unit. The mathematical models could fit well with the attached biomass, which can be applied to reflect and predict the biomass per unit carrier under different conditions, and the EC removal of COD follow the first-order reaction kinetic model. The economic and environmental benefit analysis indicated that TVDBFB and EC were feasible for treating pesticide wastewater.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liqiang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China
| | - Zhaobo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China
| | - Dongxue Hu
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China.
| | - Hui Ge
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China
| | - Lixue Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China
| | - Zhiguo Liu
- Shandong Provincial Academy of Architectural Science Co., Ltd, 29 Wuyingshan Street, Jinan 250000, PR China
| | - Hongxia Liu
- Shandong Provincial Academy of Architectural Science Co., Ltd, 29 Wuyingshan Street, Jinan 250000, PR China
| | - Yubo Cui
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China
| | - Wanjun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China
| | - Xuejun Zou
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe Road West, Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China; College of Environment and Resources, Dalian Minzu University, 18 Liaohe West Road, Dalian 116600, PR China
| | - Ying Zhang
- School of Resources and Environmental Science, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, HarBin 150030, PR China
| | - Qiankun Zhu
- Technology Center of Dalian Customs, 58 Lianshan Road, Shahekou Zone, Dalian 116600, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Castro CJ, Shyu HY, Xaba L, Bair R, Yeh DH. Performance and onsite regeneration of natural zeolite for ammonium removal in a field-scale non-sewered sanitation system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 776:145938. [PMID: 33652315 PMCID: PMC8111385 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Natural zeolite clinoptilolite was used as the primary ammonium removal method from the permeate of an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) treating high-strength blackwater generated from a community toilet facility. This zeolite-based nutrient capture system (NCS) was a sub-component of a non-sewered sanitation system (NSSS) called the NEWgenerator and was field tested for 1.5 years at an informal settlement in South Africa. The NCS was operated for three consecutive loading cycles, each lasting 291, 110, and 52 days, respectively. Both blackwater (from toilets) and blackwater with yellow water (from toilets and urinals) were treated during the field trial. Over the three cycles, the NCS was able to remove 80 ± 28%, 64 ± 23%, and 94 ± 11%, respectively, of the influent ammonium. The addition of yellow water caused the rapid exhaustion of zeolite and the observed decrease of ammonium removal during Cycle 2. After Cycles 1 and 2, onsite regeneration was performed to recover the sorption capacity of the spent zeolite. The regenerant was comprised of NaCl under alkaline conditions and was operated as a recycle-batch to reduce the generation of regenerant waste. Modifications to the second regeneration process, including an increase in regenerant contact time from 15 to 30 h, improved the zeolite regeneration efficiency from 76 ± 0.7% to 96 ± 1.0%. The mass of recoverable ammonium in the regenerant was 2.63 kg NH4-N and 3.15 kg NH4-N after Regeneration 1 and 2, respectively. However, the mass of ammonium in the regenerant accounted for only 52.8% and 54.4% of the estimated NH4-N originally sorbed onto the zeolite beds after Cycles 1 and 2, respectively. The use of zeolite clinoptilolite is a feasible method for ammonium removal by NSSS that observe variable nitrogen loading rates, but further research is still needed to recover the nitrogen from the regenerant waste.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C J Castro
- University of South Florida, Civil & Environmental Engineering, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
| | - H Y Shyu
- University of South Florida, Civil & Environmental Engineering, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - L Xaba
- Pollution Research Group, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - R Bair
- University of South Florida, Civil & Environmental Engineering, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - D H Yeh
- University of South Florida, Civil & Environmental Engineering, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Rosario P, Viswash R, Seenivasan T, Ramalingam S, Sellgren KL, Grego S, Trotochaud L. Potential Pitfalls in Wastewater Phosphorus Analysis and How to Avoid Them. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2021; 15:11786302211019218. [PMID: 34103934 PMCID: PMC8168049 DOI: 10.1177/11786302211019218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Due to the increasing adoption of nutrient discharge regulations, many research groups are stepping into new territory with phosphorus (P) measurements. Accurate reporting of P concentrations in effluent from novel wastewater treatment technologies is critical for protecting both environmental and human health. Analysis of P in wastewater is prone to pitfalls because of the (1) variety of chemical forms of P in wastewater (orthophosphate, condensed P, and organic P), (2) availability of different chemical assays for measuring different P forms, and (3) different conventions in the units for reporting P. Here, we present a case study highlighting how these pitfalls affect analysis and interpretation of P measurements. We show that, when used appropriately, commercially-available kits are indeed accurate tools for evaluating reactive P and total P concentrations. For both standard solutions and real wastewater, we systematically remove steps from the total P protocol to show how protocol deviations affect the results. While standard solutions are important for validating analytical methods, commercially-available wastewater standard solutions only contain P as orthophosphate (reactive P). We therefore demonstrate options for making a mixed-P standard solution containing acid-hydrolyzable and/or organic P compounds that can be used to validate both reactive P and total P assays.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ramya Viswash
- PSG Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Coimbatore, TN, India
| | | | - Sudha Ramalingam
- PSG Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Coimbatore, TN, India
| | - Katelyn L Sellgren
- Center for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sonia Grego
- Center for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Lena Trotochaud
- Center for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Reynaert E, Hess A, Morgenroth E. Making Waves: Why water reuse frameworks need to co-evolve with emerging small-scale technologies. WATER RESEARCH X 2021; 11:100094. [PMID: 33851106 PMCID: PMC8022240 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Novel technologies allow to reuse or recycle water for on-site applications such as toilet flushing, showering, or hand washing at the household- or building-scale. Many of these technologies have now reached technology readiness levels that require for verification and validation testing in the field. Results from such field tests of decentralized water reuse systems have been published over the past few years, and observed performance is often compared to quality targets from water reuse frameworks (WRFs). An inspection of ten recent journal publications reveals that targets from WRFs are often misinterpreted, and the emphasis of these publications is too often on demonstrating successful aspects of the technologies rather than critically evaluating the quality of the produced water. We hypothesize that some of these misinterpretations are due to ambiguous definition of scopes of WRFs (e.g., "unrestricted urban reuse") and unclear applicability for novel recycling systems that treat the water for applications that go beyond the reuse scopes defined in current WRFs. Additional challenges are linked to the verification of WRF quality targets in small-scale and decentralized systems under economic and organizational constraints. Current WRFs are not suitable for all possible reuse cases, and there is need for a critical discussion of quality targets and associated monitoring methods. As the scope of water reuse has expanded greatly over the past years, WRFs need to address new applications and advances in technology, including in monitoring capacities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Reynaert
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Angelika Hess
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Eberhard Morgenroth
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sutherland C, Reynaert E, Dhlamini S, Magwaza F, Lienert J, Riechmann ME, Buthelezi S, Khumalo D, Morgenroth E, Udert KM, Sindall RC. Socio-technical analysis of a sanitation innovation in a peri-urban household in Durban, South Africa. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:143284. [PMID: 33168239 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The provision of water and sanitation for all that is safe, dignified, reliable, affordable and sustainable is a major global challenge. While centralized sewer-based sanitation systems remain the dominant approach to providing sanitation, the benefits of non-sewered onsite sanitation systems are increasingly being recognised. This paper presents the outcomes of the testing of the Blue Diversion Autarky Toilet (BDAT), a sanitation system providing hygiene and dignity without relying on water and wastewater infrastructure, in a peri-urban household in Durban, South Africa. The BDAT was used by a single household as their only form of sanitation during three months of technical and social testing. An analysis based on technical data in combination with interpretive, qualitative research methods revealed that the BDAT functioned well and achieved high levels of social acceptance in the test household. The flushing, cleanliness and odour-free nature of the sanitation technology, its functionality, the household's previous sanitation experience, and their experience with and understanding of water scarcity, were the main factors underpinning their positive response to this innovation in sanitation. The testing process resulted in broader developmental benefits for the household, including improved basic services due to the upgrading of the electrical and existing sanitation system, social learning, and improved relationships between household members and the local state. A transdisciplinary research process, which emerged through the assessment, enabled the integration of different forms of knowledge from multiple actors to address the complexity of problems related to the development of socially just sanitation. The benefit of engaging with societal actors in sanitation innovation and assessing its outcomes using both the technical and social sciences is evident in this paper.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Sutherland
- University of KwaZulu Natal, School of Built Environment and Development Studies, 4041 Durban, South Africa
| | - Eva Reynaert
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Sifiso Dhlamini
- University of KwaZulu Natal, Pollution Research Group, 4041 Durban, South Africa
| | - Fanelesibonge Magwaza
- University of KwaZulu Natal, School of Built Environment and Development Studies, 4041 Durban, South Africa
| | - Juri Lienert
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Fraunhofer Ernst-Mach-Institute (EMI), 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Michel E Riechmann
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Sibongile Buthelezi
- University of KwaZulu Natal, School of Built Environment and Development Studies, 4041 Durban, South Africa
| | - Duduzile Khumalo
- University of KwaZulu Natal, School of Built Environment and Development Studies, 4041 Durban, South Africa
| | - Eberhard Morgenroth
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Kai M Udert
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca C Sindall
- University of KwaZulu Natal, Pollution Research Group, 4041 Durban, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Pishgar R, Morin D, Young SJ, Schwartz J, Chu A. Characterization of domestic wastewater released from 'green' households and field study of the performance of onsite septic tanks retrofitted into aerobic bioreactors in cold climate. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142446. [PMID: 33039933 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of private septic systems retrofitted into aerobic bioreactors with 'SludgeHammer' technology. In addition, the study attempted to characterize the strength of domestic wastewater released from 'green' households practicing water conservation strategies. Ten retrofitted onsite septic systems were studied in the Edmonton area, Alberta (AB) Canada during winter. These systems could remove BOD5 and TSS by 92 ± 5 and 92 ± 6% respectively which, according to Albertan regulatory standards, were characteristic removal efficiencies of the secondary treatment in the subsequent drain field. These removal efficiencies were remarkable given the strength of the influent wastewater. The raw wastewater carried significantly high pollutant concentrations (1160 ± 350 mg BOD5/L, 1653 ± 1174 mg TSS/L, 99 ± 19 mg NH4+-N/L, 100 ± 56 mg TN/L, and 39 ± 28 mg PO43--P/L), characterizing it as high-strength domestic wastewater. Mixing provided by the aerator could only suspend 1/34th (3% m/m) of the solids in the bioreactor and consequently released significantly low solid concentrations (195 ± 206 mg TSS/L) into the final treatment component. As such, this technology did not impair the natural function of septic tanks or did not create any unintended excessive solid loading on drain field as a consequence of the added mixing energies provided by the active aeration. Nitrogen balance suggested the possibility of simultaneous nitrification and denitrification (SND) in the aerobic bioreactors. In some cases, PO43--P removal efficiency was as high as that in enhanced biological phosphate removal (EBPR) process (81-97%). Phosphorus balance estimated that non-assimilative pathways (i.e., EBPR + biologically induced phosphate precipitation (BIPP)) contributed 50-99% to overall phosphorus removal in the system. Long HRTs, high influent BOD5 and anaerobic/aerobic zoning in the bioreactor most likely provided favorable conditions for SND and high phosphorus removal efficiencies in the retrofitted onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roya Pishgar
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
| | - Dean Morin
- Administrator - Private Sewage Systems, Standards Development and Support - Mechanical, Alberta Municipal Affairs, Canada
| | - Shane J Young
- SepTech Solutions Canada, Inc., Edmonton, AB, Canada; SludgeHammer Group, LLC, USA
| | - Jon Schwartz
- SepTech Solutions Canada, Inc., Edmonton, AB, Canada; SludgeHammer Group, LLC, USA
| | - Angus Chu
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Hennigs J, Ravndal KT, Parker A, Collins M, Jiang Y, Kolios AJ, McAdam E, Williams L, Tyrrel S. Faeces - Urine separation via settling and displacement: Prototype tests for a novel non-sewered sanitation system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 753:141881. [PMID: 32896734 PMCID: PMC7674630 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The development of novel, non-sewered sanitation systems like the Nano Membrane Toilet requires thorough investigation of processes that may seem well-understood. For example, unlike the settling of primary sludge, the separation of solids from liquids in a small-volume container at the scale of a household toilet has not been studied before. In two sets of experiments, the settling of real faeces and toilet paper in settling columns and the settling of synthetic faeces in a conical tank are investigated to understand the factors affecting the liquid quality for downstream treatment processes. Toilet paper is found to be a major inhibitor to settling of solids. While a lower overflow point results in better phase separation through displacement of liquid, a higher overflow point and frequent removal of solids may be more advantageous for the liquid quality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Hennigs
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom
| | - Kristin T Ravndal
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom
| | - Alison Parker
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom
| | - Matt Collins
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom; Freeform Design & Innovation Ltd., Flitwick, United Kingdom
| | - Ying Jiang
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom
| | - Athanasios J Kolios
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom; University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ewan McAdam
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom
| | - Leon Williams
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom
| | - Sean Tyrrel
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Trotochaud L, Andrus RM, Tyson KJ, Miller GH, Welling CM, Donaghy PE, Incardona JD, Evans WA, Smith PK, Oriard TL, Norris ID, Stoner BR, Guest JS, Hawkins BT. Laboratory Demonstration and Preliminary Techno-Economic Analysis of an Onsite Wastewater Treatment System. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:16147-16155. [PMID: 33269914 PMCID: PMC7745533 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Providing safe and reliable sanitation services to the billions of people currently lacking them will require a multiplicity of approaches. Improving onsite wastewater treatment to standards enabling water reuse would reduce the need to transport waste and fresh water over long distances. Here, we describe a compact, automated system designed to treat the liquid fraction of blackwater for onsite water reuse that combines cross-flow ultrafiltration, activated carbon, and electrochemical oxidation. In laboratory testing, the system consistently produces effluent with 6 ≤ pH ≤ 9, total suspended solids (TSS) < 30 mg L-1, and chemical oxygen demand (COD) < 150 mg L-1. These effluent parameters were achieved across a wide range of values for influent TSS (61-820 mg L-1) and COD (384-1505 mg L-1), demonstrating a robust system for treating wastewater of varying strengths. A preliminary techno-economic analysis (TEA) was conducted to elucidate primary cost drivers and prioritize research and development pathways toward commercial feasibility. The ultrafiltration system is the primary cost driver, contributing to >50% of both the energy and maintenance costs. Several scenario parameters showed an outsized impact on costs relative to technology parameters. Specific technological improvements for future prototype development are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lena Trotochaud
- Duke
University, Center for Water, Sanitation,
Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Durham, North Carolina 27701, United States
- Department
of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Rebecca M. Andrus
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champagne, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Kayana J. Tyson
- Duke
University, Center for Water, Sanitation,
Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Durham, North Carolina 27701, United States
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Graham H. Miller
- Duke
University, Center for Water, Sanitation,
Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Durham, North Carolina 27701, United States
- Department
of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Claire M. Welling
- Duke
University, Center for Water, Sanitation,
Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Durham, North Carolina 27701, United States
- Department
of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | | | | | | | - Paul K. Smith
- Cascade
Designs, Seattle, Washington 98134, United States
| | - Tim L. Oriard
- Cascade
Designs, Seattle, Washington 98134, United States
| | - Ian D. Norris
- Cascade
Designs, Seattle, Washington 98134, United States
| | - Brian R. Stoner
- Duke
University, Center for Water, Sanitation,
Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Durham, North Carolina 27701, United States
- Department
of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Jeremy S. Guest
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champagne, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Brian T. Hawkins
- Duke
University, Center for Water, Sanitation,
Hygiene, and Infectious Disease (WaSH-AID), Durham, North Carolina 27701, United States
- Department
of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Zhou J, Welling CM, Vasquez MM, Grego S, Chakrabarty K. Sensor-Array Optimization Based on Time-Series Data Analytics for Sanitation-Related Malodor Detection. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS 2020; 14:705-714. [PMID: 32746345 DOI: 10.1109/tbcas.2020.3002180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
There is an unmet need for a low-cost instrumented technology for detecting sanitation-related malodor as an alert for maintenance around shared toilets and emerging technologies for onsite waste treatment. In this article, our approach to an electronic nose for sanitation-related malodor is based on the use of electrochemical gas sensors, and machine-learning techniques for sensor selection and odor classification. We screened 10 sensors from different vendors with specific target gases and recorded their response to malodor from fecal specimens and urine specimens, and confounding good odors such as popcorn. The analysis of 180 odor exposures data by two feature-selection methods based on mutual information indicates that, for malodor detection, the decision tree (DT) classifier with seven features from four sensors provides 88.0% balanced accuracy and 85.1% macro F1 score. However, the k-nearest-neighbors (KNN) classifier with only three features (from two sensors) obtains 83.3% balanced accuracy and 81.3% macro F1 score. For classification of urine against feces malodor, a balanced accuracy of 94.0% and a macro F1 score of 92.9% are achieved using only four features from three sensors and a logistic regression (LR) classifier.
Collapse
|
16
|
Reynaert E, Greenwood EE, Ndwandwe B, Riechmann ME, Sindall RC, Udert KM, Morgenroth E. Practical implementation of true on-site water recycling systems for hand washing and toilet flushing. WATER RESEARCH X 2020; 7:100051. [PMID: 32462136 PMCID: PMC7242789 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2020.100051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
On-site wastewater reuse can improve global access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene. We developed a treatment system (aerated bioreactor, ultrafiltration membrane, granular activated carbon and electrolysis for chlorine disinfection) that recycles hand washing and toilet flush water. Three prototypes were field-tested in non-sewered areas, one in Switzerland (hand washing) and two in South Africa (hand washing, toilet flushing), over periods of 63, 74 and 94 days, respectively. We demonstrated that the system is able to recycle sufficient quantities of safe and appealing hand washing and toilet flush water for domestic or public use in real-life applications. Chemical contaminants were effectively removed from the used water in all prototypes. Removal efficiencies were 99.7% for the chemical oxygen demand (COD), 98.5% for total nitrogen (TN) and 99.9% for phosphate in a prototype treating hand washing water, and 99.8% for COD, 95.7% for TN and 89.6% for phosphate in a prototype treating toilet flush water. While this system allowed for true recycling for the same application, most on-site wastewater reuse systems downcycle the treated water, i.e., reuse it for an application requiring lower water quality. An analysis of 18 selected wastewater reuse specifications revealed that at best these guidelines are only partially applicable to innovative recycling systems as they are focused on the downcycling of water to the environment (e.g., use for irrigation). We believe that a paradigm shift is necessary and advocate for the implementation of risk-based (and thus end-use dependent) system performance targets to evaluate water treatment systems, which recycle and not only downcycle water.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Reynaert
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Esther E. Greenwood
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Bonginkosi Ndwandwe
- University of KwaZulu Natal, Pollution Research Group, 4041, Durban, South Africa
| | - Michel E. Riechmann
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca C. Sindall
- University of KwaZulu Natal, Pollution Research Group, 4041, Durban, South Africa
| | - Kai M. Udert
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Eberhard Morgenroth
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Environmental Engineering, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Welling CM, Sasidaran S, Kachoria P, Hennessy S, Lynch BJ, Teleski S, Chaudhari H, Sellgren KL, Stoner BR, Grego S, Hawkins BT. Field testing of a household-scale onsite blackwater treatment system in Coimbatore, India. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 713:136706. [PMID: 32019042 PMCID: PMC7043008 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
4.2 billion people live without access to safely managed sanitation services. This report describes the field testing of an onsite prototype system designed to treat blackwater from a single flush toilet and reuse of the treated effluent for flushing. The system passes wastewater through a solid-liquid separator followed by settling tanks and granular activated carbon columns into an electrochemical reactor that oxidizes chloride salts from urine to generate chlorine to remove pathogens. The objectives of the study were to verify the functionality of the system (previously demonstrated in the laboratory) under realistic use conditions, to identify maintenance requirements, and to make a preliminary assessment of the system's user acceptability. The prototype was installed in a women's workplace and residential toilet block in Coimbatore, India, and tested over a period of 10 months. The treated water met stringent disinfection threshold for both E. coli and helminth eggs and produced a clear, colorless effluent that met or nearly met local and international discharge standards for non-sewered sanitation systems. The effluent had an average chemical oxygen demand of 81 mg/L, total suspended solids of 11 mg/L, and reduction of total nitrogen by 65%. These tests determined the recommended service lifetimes and maintenance intervals for key system components including the electrochemical cell, granular activated carbon columns, and solid-liquid separator. User feedback regarding the use of treated blackwater as flush water was positive. These findings will inform the design and implementation of next-generation systems currently under development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Welling
- Duke University Center for WaSH-AID and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | - Sarah Hennessy
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA; Triangle Environmental Health Initiative, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - Katelyn L Sellgren
- Duke University Center for WaSH-AID and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Brian R Stoner
- Duke University Center for WaSH-AID and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sonia Grego
- Duke University Center for WaSH-AID and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Brian T Hawkins
- Duke University Center for WaSH-AID and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Durham, NC, USA.
| |
Collapse
|