Impact of Eisenia fetida earthworms and biochar on potentially toxic element mobility and health of a contaminated soil

The interaction between biochar and earthworms: Revealing the potential ecological risks of biochar application and the feasibility of their co-application

Biochar's interaction with soil-dwelling organisms, particularly earthworms, is crucial in ensuring the effective and secure utilization of biochar in the soil. This review introduces the application of biochar in soil, summarizes how earthworms respond to biochar-amended soil and the underlying factors that can influence their response, discusses the synergistic and antagonistic impacts of earthworm activity on the efficacy of biochar, and considers the feasibility of applying them together. A review of existing research has identified uncertainty in the effect of biochar exposure on earthworms, with biochar derived from animal wastes, produced at higher pyrolysis temperatures, and used at higher doses of biochar having more negative effects on earthworms. Habitat modification, toxicity release, particle effects, and contaminant immobilization are underlying factors in how biochar affects earthworm indicators. While biochar in contaminated soils may alleviate the stress of pollutants on earthworms by decreasing their bioaccumulation, this remedial effect is not always effective. Additionally, earthworm bioturbation can enhance the migration, fragmentation, and oxidation of biochar, while also stimulating extracellular enzymes that convert biochar into 'vermichar'. Earthworms and biochar can synergize well to improve soil fertility and remediate soil organic pollution, yet exhibit contrasting roles in soil C sequestration and immobilizing heavy metals in soil. These findings highlight both the advantages and risks of their co-application. Therefore, when considering the use of biochar alone or with earthworms, it is crucial to thoroughly assess its potential ecotoxicity on earthworms and other soil organisms, as well as the influence of bioturbation, such as that caused by earthworms, on the effectiveness of biochar.

Copper toxicity on Eisenia fetida in a vineyard soil: a combined study with standard tests, genotoxicity assessment and gut metagenomic analysis

Copper (Cu) toxicity is a pressing concern for several soils, especially in organic viticulture. The objective of this work was to assess Cu toxicity on the non-target organism Eisenia fetida, employing both traditional and novel tools for early identification of Cu-induced damages. In addition to traditional tests like avoidance and reproductive toxicity experiments, other tests such as the single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) and gut microbiome analysis were evaluated to identify early and more sensitive pollution biomarkers. Four sub-lethal Cu concentrations were studied, and the results showed strong dose-dependent responses by the earthworm avoidance test and the exceeding of habitat threshold limit at the higher Cu doses. An inverse proportionality was observed between reproductive output and soil Cu concentration. Bioaccumulation was not detected in earthworms; soil concentrations of potentially bioavailable Cu were not affected by E. fetida presence or by time. On the contrary, the SCGE test revealed dose-dependent genotoxicity for the 'tail length' parameter already at the second day of Cu exposition. Gut microbiome analysis a modulation of microbial composition, with the most aboundant families being Pectobateriaceae, Comamonadaceae and Microscillaceae. Bacillaceae increased over time and showed adaptability to copper up to 165 mg/kg, while at the highest dose even the sensitive Acetobacteriaceae family was affected. The research provided new insights into the ecotoxicity of Cu sub-lethal doses highlighting both alterations at earthworms' cellular level and changes in their gut microbiota.

Mixing Compost and Biochar Can Enhance the Chemical and Biological Recovery of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements

Biochar and compost are able to influence the mobility of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soil. As such, they can be useful in restoring the functionality of contaminated soils, albeit their effectiveness can vary substantially depending on the chemical and/or the (micro)biological endpoint that is targeted. To better explore the potential of the two amendments in the restoration of PTE-contaminated soils, biochar, compost (separately added at 3% w/w), and their mixtures (1:1, 3:1, and 1:3 biochar-to-compost ratios) were added to contaminated soil (i.e., 2362 mg kg-1 of Sb and 2801 mg kg-1 of Zn). Compost and its mixtures promoted an increase in soil fertility (e.g., total N; extractable P; and exchangeable K, Ca, and Mg), which was not found in the soil treated with biochar alone. All the tested amendments substantially reduced labile Zn in soil, while biochar alone was the most effective in reducing labile Sb in the treated soils (-11% vs. control), followed by compost (-4%) and biochar-compost mixtures (-8%). Compost (especially alone) increased soil biochemical activities (e.g., dehydrogenase, urease, and β-glucosidase), as well as soil respiration and the potential catabolic activity of soil microbial communities, while biochar alone (probably due to its high adsorptive capacity towards nutrients) mostly exhibited an inhibitory effect, which was partially mitigated in soils treated with both amendments. Overall, the biochar-compost combinations had a synergistic effect on both amendments, i.e., reducing PTE mobility and restoring soil biological functionality at the same time. This finding was supported by plant growth trials which showed increased Sb and Zn mineralomass values for rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaud.) grown on biochar-compost mixtures, suggesting a potential use of rigid ryegrass in the compost-biochar-assisted phytoremediation of PTE-contaminated soils.

Effects of biochar on earthworms during remediation of potentially toxic elements contaminated soils

With the widespread use of biochar for soil remediation and improvement, its effects on soil organisms are receiving increased attention. The impacts of biochar on earthworms are still poorly understood. This study aimed to assess the potential ecotoxicity of rice husk biochar (RB) and sludge biochar (SB) on earthworms during potentially toxic elements (PTEs) contaminated soil remediation. The results showed that high rates of RB addition (5% and 10%) caused earthworm mortality, but SB addition did not affect earthworm survival. When added at non-lethal rates (3%), RB and SB addition did not affect survival, weight loss, and PTEs accumulation of earthworms, while resulting in apparent avoidance behavior and oxidative stress response. Among them, RB addition was more likely to cause avoidance behavior, while SB addition had a more pronounced stress effect on earthworms. Additionally, the bacterial communities in the earthworm gut were more sensitive to biochar addition than those in soil. SB addition had a greater impact on earthworm gut bacterial communities than RB addition. The addition of RB and SB increased the abundance of Bacillaceae while decreasing the abundance of Rhizobiaceae in the earthworm gut. This change in the composition of bacterial community may impact the nitrogen cycle and organic matter degradation functions of earthworms. The study suggests that RB and SB may have different effects on earthworms during PTEs-contaminated soil remediation, depending on their properties. It will assist us to understand the potential ecotoxicity of biochar and provide several guidance for its safe application.

Potential of vermicomposting with mixtures of animal manure and vegetable leaves in the development of Eisenia foetida, microbial biomass, and enzymatic activity under semi-arid conditions

Vermicomposting is the bio-oxidation and stabilization of organic matter involving relationships between the action of earthworms and microorganisms and the activation and dynamics of several enzyme activities. Semi-arid farmers to make (extra) money and organic production, produce their vermicompost using plant residues and animal manure, but there is no information about the final product generated. Thus, this study aimed to analyze the potential of vermicomposting with mixtures of animal manure and vegetable leaves in the development of Eisenia foetida, microbial biomass, and enzymatic activity in the semi-arid region, Brazil. The experimental design applied was randomized block in a 6 × 4 factorial scheme with four replicates, with six treatments (mixtures of cattle manure, goat manure, cashew leaves, and catanduva leaves) and evaluated at four-time intervals (30, 60, 90, and 120 days of vermicomposting). The treatments were placed in polyethylene pots in the same site, environmental conditions, and residues proportions as used by farmers. The characteristics analyzed were the number of earthworms (NE), total earthworm biomass (TEB) and earthworm multiplication index (MI), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), and activities of enzymes β-glucosidase, dehydrogenase, alkaline and acid phosphatases. The cattle manure vermicomposted shows the highest average values observed for NE, MI, TEB, MBC, and enzymatic activity, regardless of the plant leaves mix. In general, the enzymes activities were found in the descending order of β-glucosidase > alkaline phosphatase > dehydrogenase > acid phosphatase. The maturation dynamics of vermicompost were characterized by a decline in the microbial population and number and biomass of earthworms in the substrate and consequently a decrease in new enzyme synthesis and degradation of the remaining enzyme pool. Microbial biomass and enzymatic activity were indicators for changes in the quality of vermicompost.

Performance and mechanisms of biochar-assisted vermicomposting in accelerating di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate biodegradation in farmland soil

Biochar and earthworms can accelerate di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) degradation in soils. However, little is known regarding the effect of biochar-assisted vermicomposting on soil DEHP degradation and the underlying mechanisms. Therefore, the present study investigated DEHP degradation performance and bacterial community changes in farmland soils using earthworms, biochar, or their combination. Biochar-assisted vermicomposting significantly improved DEHP degradation through initial physical adsorption on biochar and subsequent rapid biodegradation in the soil, earthworm gut, and charosphere. Burkholderiaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, and Flavobacteriaceae were the potential DEHP degraders and were enriched in biochar-assisted vermicomposting. In particularly, Burkholderiaceae and Sphingomonadaceae were enriched in the earthworm gut and charosphere, possibly explaining the mechanism of accelerated DEHP degradation in biochar-assisted vermicomposting. Soil pH, soil organic matter, and humus (humic acid, fulvic acid, and humin) increased by earthworms or biochar enhanced DEHP degradation. These findings imply that biochar-assisted vermicomposting enhances DEHP removal not only through rapid physical sorption but also through the improvement of soil physicochemical characteristics and promotion of degraders in the soil, earthworm gut, and charosphere. Overall, biochar-assisted vermicomposting is a suitable method for the remediation of organic-contaminated farmland soils.

Bioaccessibility of Pb in health-related size fractions of contaminated soils amended with phosphate

Lead (Pb) contamination is one of the most significant exposure hazards to human health. Contaminated soil particles may be eroded and transferred either to the atmosphere (<10 μm) or to streams; or they may be incidentally ingested (<200 μm). Among strategies for the long-term management of this risk, one of the most cost-effective is the reduction of Pb mobility and bioavailability via amendment with phosphorus-containing materials. To clarify the effectiveness of P amendment in reducing Pb mobility and bioaccessibility in different soil size fractions, an experiment was performed by adding a soluble P compound to a historically contaminated urban soil (RO), a mining soil (MI), and an uncontaminated spiked soil (SP) at different P:Pb molar ratios (2.5:1, 5:1, and 15:1). In the <10 μm fraction of soils, P addition reduced bioaccessible Pb only in the SP soil at the highest dose, with little to no effect on RO and MI soils. Similarly, in the coarse fraction, Pb was immobilized only in the SP soil with all three P doses. These results were probably due to the higher stability of Pb in historically contaminated soils, where Pb dissolution is the limiting factor to the formation of insoluble Pb compounds. The bioaccessible proportion of Pb (using SBET method) was higher than 70 % of the total Pb in all soils and was similar in both fine and coarse particle fractions. Due to the enrichment of Pb in finer particles, this implies possible adverse effects to the environment or to human health if these particles escape from the soil. These results call for increasing attention to the effect of remediation activities on fine soil particles, considering their significant environmental role especially in urban and in historically low or moderately contaminated areas.

Field Experiments of Phyto-Stabilization, Biochar-Stabilization, and Their Coupled Stabilization of Soil Heavy Metal Contamination around a Copper Mine Tailing Site, Inner Mongolia

A field trial was conducted in Inner Mongolia to evaluate the stabilization effects of phyto-stabilization, biochar-stabilization, and their coupled stabilization for As, Cu, Pb, and Zn in soil. Stabilization plants (Achnatherum splendens, Puccinellia chinampoensis, and Chinese small iris) and biochar (wood charcoals and chelator-modified biochar) were introduced in the field trial. The acid-extractable fraction and residual fraction of the elements were extracted following a three-stage modified procedure to assess the stabilization effect. The results after 60 days showed that the coupled stabilization produced a better stabilization effect than biochar-/phyto- stabilization alone. Achnatherum splendens and Puccinellia chinampoensis were found to activate the target elements: the residual fraction proportion of As, Cu, Pb, and Zn decreased while the acid-extractable fraction proportion of Cu and Zn increased in the corresponding planting area. Neither type of biochar produced a notable stabilization effect. The residual fraction proportion of As (20.8–84.0%, 29.2–82%), Pb (31.6–39.3%, 32.1–48.9%), and Zn (30.0–36.2%, 30.1–41.4%) increased, while the acid-extractable fraction proportion remained nearly unchanged after treatment using Chinese small iris-straw biochar or Achnatherum splendens-straw biochar, respectively. The results indicate that phyto-stabilization or biochar-stabilization alone are not suitable, whereas the coupled stabilization approach is a more efficient choice.