To spread or not to spread? Assessing the suitability of sewage sludge and other biogenic wastes for agriculture reuse

Sewage sludge (biosolids) management represents a worldwide issue. Due to its valuable properties, approximately one half of the EU production is recovered in agriculture. Nevertheless, growing attention is given to potential negative effects deriving from the presence of harmful pollutants. It is recognized that a (even very detailed) chemical characterization is not able to predict ecotoxicity of a mixture. However, this can be directly measured by bioassays. Actually, the choice of the most suitable tests is still under debate. This paper presents a multilevel characterization protocol of sewage sludge and other organic residues, based on bioassays and chemical-physical-microbiological analyses. The detailed description of the experimental procedure includes all the involved steps: the criteria for selecting the organic matrices to be tested and compared; the sample pre-treatment required before the analyses execution; the chemical, physical and microbiological characterisation; the bioassays, grouped in three classes (baseline toxicity; specific mode of action; reactive mode of action); data processing. The novelty of this paper lies in the integrated use of advanced tools, and is based on three pillars:•the direct ecosafety assessment of the matrices to be reused.•the adoption of innovative bioassays and analytical procedures.•the original criteria for data normalization and processing.

Terrestrial bioassays for assessing the biochemical and toxicological impact of biosolids application derived from wastewater treatment plants

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are facilities where municipal wastewater undergo treatment so that its organic load and its pathogenic potential are minimized. Sewage sludge is a by-product of this process and when properly treated is preferentially called "biosolids". These treatments may include some or most of the following: thickening, dewatering, drying, digestion, composting, liming. Nowadays it is almost impossible to landfill biosolids, which however can well be used as crop fertilizers. Continuous or superfluous biosolids fertilization may negatively affect non-target organisms such as soil macro-organisms or even plants. These effects can be depicted through bioassays on terrestrial animals and plants. It has been shown that earthworms have been affected to various degrees on the following endpoints: pollutants' bioaccumulation, viability, reproduction, avoidance behavior, burrowing behavior. Collembola have been affected on viability, reproduction, avoidance behavior. Other terrestrial organisms such as nematodes and diplopods have also shown adverse health effects. Phytotoxicity have been caused by some biosolids regimes as measured through the following endpoints: seed germination, root length, shoot length, shoot biomass, root biomass, chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activity. Very limited statistical correlations between pollutant concentrations and toxicity endpoints have been established such as between juvenile mortality (earthworms) and As or Ba concentration in the biosolids, between juvenile mortality (collembola) and Cd or S concentration in the biosolids, or between phytotoxicity and some extractable metals in leachates or aquatic extracts from the biosolids; more correlations between physicochemical characteristics and toxicity endpoints have been found such as between phytotoxicity and ammonium N in biosolids or their liquid extracts, or between phytotoxicity and salinity. An inverse correlation between earthworm/collembola mortality and stable organic matter has also been found. Basing the appropriateness of biosolids only on chemical analyses for pollutants is not cost-effective. To enable risk characterization and subsequent risk mitigation it is important to apply a battery of bioassays on soil macro-organisms and on plants, utilizing a combination of endpoints and established protocols. Through combined analytical quantification and toxicity testing, safe use of biosolids in agriculture can be achieved.

Antimicrobials in Eisenia fetida earthworms: A comprehensive study from method development to the assessment of uptake and degradation

In this work, an accurate analytical method was developed for the simultaneous analysis of twenty-seven antimicrobials (AMs) in earthworms using liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometry detector (UHPLC-MS/MS). Adequate apparent recoveries (80-120 %) and limits of quantification (LOQ) (1 μg·kg-1 - 10 μg·kg-1) were obtained, with the exception of norfloxacin (34 μg·kg-1). The method was applied to evaluate the accumulation of sulfamethazine (SMZ) and tetracycline (TC) in earthworms after performing OECD-207 toxicity test, in which Eisenia fetida (E. fetida) organisms were exposed to soils spiked with 10 mg·kg-1, 100 mg·kg-1 or 1000 mg·kg-1 of SMZ and TC, individually. The results confirmed the bioaccumulation of both AMs in the organisms, showing a greater tendency to accumulate SMZ since higher bioconcentration factor values were obtained for this compound at the exposure concentrations tested. In addition, the degradation of both AMs in both matrices, soils and earthworms was studied using liquid chromatography coupled to a q-Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometry detector. Thirteen transformation products (TPs) were successfully identified, eight of them being identified for the first time in soil/earthworm (such as 4-Amino-3-chloro-n-(4,6-dimethylpyrimidin-2-yl)benzenesulfonamide or 4-(dimethylamino)-1,11,12a-trihydroxy-6,6-dimethyl-3,7,10,12-tetraoxo-3,4,4a,5,5a,6,7,10,12,12a-decahydrotetracene-2-carboxamide, among others) and their formation/degradation trend over time was also studied. Regarding the biological effects, only SMZ caused changes in earthworm growth, evidenced by weight loss in earthworms exposed to concentrations of 100 mg·kg-1 and 1000 mg·kg-1. Riboflavin decreased at all concentrations of SMZ, as well as at the highest concentration of TC. This indicates that these antibiotics can potentially alter the immune system of E. fetida. This research represents a significant advance in improving our knowledge about the contamination of soil by AM over time. It investigates the various ways in which earthworms are exposed to AMs, either by skin contact or ingestion. Furthermore, it explores how these substances accumulate in earthworms, the processes by which earthworms break them down or metabolise them, as well as the resulting TPs. Finally, it examines the potential effects of these substances on the environment.

Evaluation of models to estimate the bioaccumulation of organic chemicals in earthworms

Modelling approaches to estimate the bioaccumulation of organic chemicals by earthworms are important for improving the realism in risk assessment of chemicals. However, the applicability of existing models is uncertain, partly due to the lack of independent datasets to test them. This study therefore conducted a comprehensive literature review on existing empirical and kinetic models that estimate the bioaccumulation of organic chemicals in earthworms and gathered two independent datasets from published literature to evaluate the predictive performance of these models. The Belfroid et al. (1995a) model is the best-performing empirical model, with 91.2% of earthworm body residue simulations within an order of magnitude of observation. However, this model is limited to the more hydrophobic pesticides and to the earthworm species Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei. The kinetic model proposed by Jager et al. (2003b) which out-performs that of Armitage and Gobas (2007), predicted uptake of PCB 153 in the earthworm E. andrei to within a factor of 10. However, the applicability of Jager et al.'s model to other organic compounds and other earthworm species is unknown due to the limited evaluation dataset. The model needs to be parameterised for different chemical, soil, and species types prior to use, which restricts its applicability to risk assessment on a broad scale. Both the empirical and kinetic models leave room for improvement in their ability to reliably predict bioaccumulation in earthworms. Whether they are fit for purpose in environmental risk assessment needs careful consideration on a case by case basis.

Expanding the insight of ecological risk on the novel chiral pesticide mefentrifluconazole: Mechanism of enantioselective toxicity to earthworms (Eisenia fetida)

Continued application of new chiral fungicide mefentrifluconazole (MFZ) increases its risk to soil ecosystem. However, the toxicity of MFZ enantiomers to soil fauna and whether stereoselectivity exists remains poorly elucidated. Based on multilevel toxicity endpoints and transcriptomics, we investigated the negative effects of racemic, R-(-)-, and S-(+)-MFZ on Eisenia fetida. After exposure to S-(+) configuration at 4 mg/kg for 28 day, its reactive oxygen species levels were elevated by 15.4% compared to R-(-) configuration, inducing enantiospecific oxidative stress and transcriptional aberrations. The S-(+) isomer induced more severe cell membrane damage and apoptosis than the R-(-) isomer, and notably, the selectivity of apoptosis is probably dominated by the mitochondrial pathway. Mechanistically, differential mitochondrial stress lies in: S-(+) isomer specifically up-regulated mitochondrial cellular component compared to R-(-) isomer and identified more serious mitochondrial fission. Furthermore, S-(+) conformation down-regulated biological processes associated with ATP synthesis and metabolism, with specific inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory electron transport chain complex I and IV activity resulting in more severe electron flow disturbances. These ultimately mediated enantioselective ontogenetic process disorders, which were supported at phenotypic (weight loss), genetic, and protein (reverse modulate TCTP and Sox2 expression) levels. Our findings offer an important reference for elucidating the enantioselective toxicological mechanism of MFZ in soil fauna.

Bioluminescence - The Vibrant Glow of Nature and its Chemical Mechanisms

Bioluminescence, the mesmerizing natural phenomenon where living organisms produce light through chemical reactions, has long captivated scientists and laypersons alike, offering a rich tapestry of insights into biological function, ecology, evolution as well as the underlying chemistry. This comprehensive introductory review systematically explores the phenomenon of bioluminescence, addressing its historical context, geographic dispersion, and ecological significance with a focus on their chemical mechanisms. Our examination begins with terrestrial bioluminescence, discussing organisms from different habitats. We analyze thefireflies of Central Europe's meadows and the fungi in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil. Additionally, we inspect bioluminescent species in New Zealand, specifically river-dwelling snails and mosquito larvae found in Waitomo Caves. Our exploration concludes in the Siberian Steppes, highlighting the area's luminescent insects and annelids. Transitioning to the marine realm, the second part of this review examines marine bioluminescent organisms. We explore this phenomenon in deep-sea jellyfish and their role in the ecosystem. We then move to Toyama Bay, Japan, where seasonal bioluminescence of dinoflagellates and ostracods present a unique case study. We also delve into the bacterial world, discussing how bioluminescent bacteria contribute to symbiotic relationships. For each organism, we contextualize its bioluminescence, providing details about its discovery, ecological function, and geographical distribution. A special focus lies on the examination of the underlying chemical mechanisms that enables these biological light displays. Concluding this review, we present a series of practical bioluminescence and chemiluminescence experiments, providing a resource for educational demonstrations and student research projects. Our goal with this review is to provide a summary of bioluminescence across the diverse ecological contexts, contributing to the broader understanding of this unique biological phenomenon and its chemical mechanisms serving researchers new to the field, educators and students alike.

Impact of microplastics on nicosulfuron accumulation and bacteria community in soil-earthworms system

Microplastics (MPs) widely co-occur with various pollutants in soils. However, the data related to the impacts of MPs on terrestrial animal and microbial properties in pesticide-contaminated soils are few. In this study, the influence of MPs (0.01%, 0.1%, and 1%) on nicosulfuron concentrations in soil (10 µg/g) and earthworms were investigated, moreover, microbial community structure and diversity in soil and earthworm gut were also measured. After 30 days, the concentration of nicosulfuron in soil decreased to 1.27 µg/g, moreover, the residual concentration of nicosulfuron in soil (1%MPs and nicosulfuron) was only 44.8% of that in the single nicosulfuron treatment group. The accumulation of nicosulfuron in earthworms (1%MPs and nicosulfuron) was 7.37 µg/g, which was 1.82 times of that in the single nicosulfuron treatment group. In addition, 1% MPs decreased the richness and diversity of the soil and gut bacterial community in earthworms as well as altered microbial community composition, leading to the enrichment of specific microbial community. Our findings imply that MPs may change the migration of pesticides to terrestrial animal and as well as microbial diversity in earthworms and soil.

Spent coffee grounds as a suitable alternative to standard soil in ecotoxicological tests

Eisenia andrei is considered in OECD and ISO guidelines to be a suitable replacement for Eisenia fetida in ecotoxicological assays. This suggests that other alternative materials and methods could also be used in standard procedures for toxicity testing. The guidelines also favor using less time-consuming procedures and reducing costs and other limitations to ecotoxicological assessments. In recent years, spent coffee grounds (SCG) have been used to produce vermicompost and biochar and as an additive to organic fertilizers. In addition, the physicochemical characteristics of SCG indicate that the material is a suitable substrate for earthworms, with the organisms performing as well as in natural soil. In the present study, a battery of ecotoxicological tests was established with unwashed and washed SCG and a natural reference soil (LUFA 2.2). The test substrates were spiked with different concentrations of silver nitrate. Survival and reproduction of the earthworm E. andrei were assessed under different conditions, along with substrate basal respiration (SBR) as a proxy for microbial activity. Seedling emergence and the germination index of Lepidium sativum were also determined, following standard guidelines. Exposure to silver nitrate had similar effects on earthworm survival and reproduction, as the estimated effective concentrations (EC10 and EC50) in unwashed SCG and LUFA 2.2 overlapped. A hormetic effect was observed for SBR in LUFA 2.2 spiked with 12.8 mg/kg but not in unwashed SCG. Both SBR and root development were inhibited by similar concentrations of silver nitrate in washed SCG. The findings indicate that unwashed SCG could potentially be used as a substrate in E. andrei toxicity tests and support the eventual inclusion of this material in the standard guidelines.

New developments on vermifiltration as a bio-ecological wastewater treatment technology: Mechanism, application, performance, modelling, optimization, and sustainability

The review discusses the advancements in vermifiltration research over the last decade, focusing on pollution removal mechanisms, system performance, the fate of filter components, and by-products. Vermifiltration has demonstrated remarkable capabilities, particularly in treating highly contaminated wastewater with Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) levels exceeding 92,000 mg/L and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) levels over 25,000 mg/L, achieving removal rates of approximately 89% and 91%, respectively. Importantly, vermifiltration maintains its effectiveness even with fluctuating organic loads at the inlet, thanks to optimization of parameters like Hydraulic Loading Rate, biodegradable organic strength, earthworm density and active layer depth. Clogging issues can be minimized through parameters optimization. The review also highlights vermifiltrations' potential in co-treating the organic fraction of municipal solid waste while significantly reducing heavy metal concentrations, including Cd, Ni, Pb, Cu, Cr, and Zn, during the treatment process. Earthworms play a pivotal role in the removal of various components, with impressive removal percentages, such as 75% for Total Organic Carbon (TOC), 86% for Total COD, 87% for BOD5, 59% for ammonia nitrogen, and 99.9% for coliforms. Furthermore, vermifiltration-treated effluents can be readily utilized in agriculture, with the added benefit of producing vermicompost, a nutrient-rich biofertilizer. The technology contributes to environmental sustainability, as it helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), thanks to earthworm activity creating an aerobic environment, minimizing GHG production compared to other wastewater treatment methods. In terms of pollutant degradation modeling, the Stover-Kincannon model outperforms the first-order and Grau second-order models, with higher regression coefficients (R2 = 0.9961 for COD and R2 = 0.9353 for TN). Overall, vermifiltration emerges as an effective and sustainable wastewater treatment solution, capable of handling challenging wastewater sources, while also producing valuable by-products and minimizing environmental impacts.

Investigating the toxic effects of ethoprophos on Eisenia fetida: Integrating light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and biochemical analysis

This research investigated the ecological impact of exposing Eisenia fetida, an essential component of soil ecosystems, to the organophosphate pesticide ethoprophos, widely used in agriculture. With a focus on understanding the specific effects on earthworms, we employed three concentrations (7.5, 15, and 30 mg/kg) over 28 days, considering the pesticide's short half-life and existing data on environmental concentrations. We aimed to contribute to a broader understanding of how these pesticides affect soil health. Histological analysis, including staining with Hematoxylin-eosin, Mallory Trichrome, Periodic acid-Schiff, and Alcian blue methods, was conducted on control and treatment groups. The histological and histopathological results were evaluated using the light microscopy, revealing various degenerations in the epithelial and muscle layers. Scanning electron microscopy analysis detected concentration-related notable compaction of the body surface, asymmetry, and distortion in the body segments. In the exposed groups, especially those subjected to higher ethoprophos concentrations, the grid-like appearance of the clitellum was visibly disturbed. This disturbance in the grid-like pattern is indicative of structural changes and disruptions at the microscopic level. Furthermore, total protein, carbohydrate, lipid analyses, as well as acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase enzyme activities, were also evaluated for earthworms from each experimental group. The analyses showed a concentration-related decrease in all biochemical measurements, except acid phosphatase enzyme activity. In conclusion, our study reveals that the environmentally realistic concentrations of ethoprophos, an effective and widely used pesticide in pest control, have detrimental effects on the health and physiology of E. fetida. These effects are manifested through histological deformities, altered biochemical profiles, and observable physiological disturbances. These results shed light on the harmful effects of ethoprophos on earthworms, underlining the necessity to restrict its usage in agricultural practices and thereby support environmental sustainability.

Copper toxicity on Eisenia fetida in a vineyard soil: a combined study with standard tests, genotoxicity assessment and gut metagenomic analysis

Copper (Cu) toxicity is a pressing concern for several soils, especially in organic viticulture. The objective of this work was to assess Cu toxicity on the non-target organism Eisenia fetida, employing both traditional and novel tools for early identification of Cu-induced damages. In addition to traditional tests like avoidance and reproductive toxicity experiments, other tests such as the single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) and gut microbiome analysis were evaluated to identify early and more sensitive pollution biomarkers. Four sub-lethal Cu concentrations were studied, and the results showed strong dose-dependent responses by the earthworm avoidance test and the exceeding of habitat threshold limit at the higher Cu doses. An inverse proportionality was observed between reproductive output and soil Cu concentration. Bioaccumulation was not detected in earthworms; soil concentrations of potentially bioavailable Cu were not affected by E. fetida presence or by time. On the contrary, the SCGE test revealed dose-dependent genotoxicity for the 'tail length' parameter already at the second day of Cu exposition. Gut microbiome analysis a modulation of microbial composition, with the most aboundant families being Pectobateriaceae, Comamonadaceae and Microscillaceae. Bacillaceae increased over time and showed adaptability to copper up to 165 mg/kg, while at the highest dose even the sensitive Acetobacteriaceae family was affected. The research provided new insights into the ecotoxicity of Cu sub-lethal doses highlighting both alterations at earthworms' cellular level and changes in their gut microbiota.

Artificial light at night reduces earthworm activity but increases growth of invasive ragweed

BACKGROUND

Artificial light at night, also referred to as light pollution (LP), has been shown to affect many organisms. However, little is known about the extent to which ecological interactions between earthworms and plants are altered by LP. We investigated the effects of LP on anecic earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) that come to the surface at night to forage and mate, and on the germination and growth of the invasive and allergenic ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). In a full factorial pot experiment in the greenhouse, we tested four factors and their interactions: LP (5 lux vs. 0 lux at night), earthworms (two individuals vs. none), plant species (seeding of ragweed only vs. mixed with Phacelia seeds) and sowing depth (seed placed at the surface vs. in 5 cm depth). Data were analysed using Generalized Linear (Mixed) Models and multifactorial ANOVAs with soil parameters as covariates.

RESULTS

Light pollution reduced earthworm surface activity by 76% as measured by casting activity and toothpick index; 85% of mating earthworms were observed in the absence of LP. Light pollution in interaction with earthworms reduced ragweed germination by 33%. However, LP increased ragweed height growth by 104%. Earthworms reduced ragweed germination especially when seeds were placed on the soil surface, suggesting seed consumption by earthworms.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that anecic earthworms are negatively affected by LP because reduced surface activity limits their ability to forage and mate. The extent to which earthworm-induced ecosystem services or community interactions are also affected by LP remains to be investigated. If the increased height growth of ragweed leads to increased pollen and seed production, it is likely that the competition of ragweed with field crops and the risks to human health will also increase under LP.

Toxicological approaches as tool to assess the effects of a mixture of photocatalytic degradation products originated from the unregulated neonicotinoid acetamiprid employing a terrestrial organism (Eisenia andrei)

Acetamiprid (ACT) has been detected in several water sources in Latin America. The presence of its degradation products in the environment is not negligible and transformation products (TPs) significantly contribute to environmental health risks. Although advanced oxidative processes are promising for the treatment of this neocotinoid, effects of these are still unknown. In this context, the effects of a mixture of photocatalytic degradation products resulting from an ACT treatment for 90 min employing TiO2/UV on cytotoxicity and oxidative stress parameters in Eisenia andrei earthworms in acute and chronic experiments using typical Latin American soil were assessed. Acute contact tests were performed (72 h) using a filter paper moistened with an ACT solution and a chronic test was performed using Oxisoil (200 g) moistened with an ACT solution for 45 days. Catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities, reduced glutathione (GSH) levels and cytotoxicity (cellular eleocyte and amoebocyte assessments) were investigated. Over 75 % of ACT was degraded within the first 15 min of treatment, with levels below the limit of detection after 60 min. The acute test revealed greater cytotoxic effects associated with the effluents treated for T0 and T15 min, with decreased cell density noted after 48 h of exposure, in addition to CAT induction (in all treatments) and GST induction following T0, T15 and T90 min exposures. Concerning the chronic assay, decreases in cell density (T0, T15, T60 and T90 min) and viability (T0, T60 and T90 min) were observed after 45 days, in addition to induced CAT activity following T0, T15 and T60 exposures and GST induction following the T60 min exposure. Reduced glutathione levels were unaltered, comprising the least sensitive biomarker among the investigated parameters to the treated effluent exposures. The mixture of ACT degradation products can cause toxic effects to non-target organisms, despite parent compound degradation, alerting for the need for ecotoxicological tests to prove decreased effluent toxicity, in addition to the improvement of degradation techniques.

Further Limitations of Synthetic Fungicide Use and Expansion of Organic Agriculture in Europe Will Increase the Environmental and Health Risks of Chemical Crop Protection Caused by Copper-Containing Fungicides

Copper-containing fungicides have been used in agriculture since 1885. The divalent copper ion is a nonbiodegradable multisite inhibitor that has a strictly protective, nonsystemic effect on plants. Copper-containing plant protection products currently approved in Germany contain copper oxychloride, copper hydroxide, and tribasic copper sulfate. Copper is primarily used to control oomycete pathogens in grapevine, hop, potato, and fungal diseases in fruit production. In the environment, copper is highly persistent and toxic to nontarget organisms. The latter applies for terrestric and aquatic organisms such as earthworms, insects, birds, fish, Daphnia, and algae. Hence, copper fungicides are currently classified in the European Union as candidates for substitution. Pertinently, copper also exhibits significant mammalian toxicity (median lethal dose oral = 300-2500 mg/kg body wt in rats). To date, organic production still profoundly relies on the use of copper fungicides. Attempts to reduce doses of copper applications and the search for copper substitutes have not been successful. Copper compounds compared with modern synthetic fungicides with similar areas of use display significantly higher risks for honey bees (3- to 20-fold), beneficial insects (6- to 2000-fold), birds (2- to 13-fold), and mammals (up to 17-fold). These data contradict current views that crop protection in organic farming is associated with lower environmental or health risks. Further limitations in the range and use of modern single-site fungicides may force conventional production to fill the gaps with copper fungicides to counteract fungicide resistance. In contrast to the European Union Green Deal goals, the intended expansion of organic farming in Europe would further enhance the use of copper fungicides and hence increase the overall risks of chemical crop protection in Europe. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:19-30. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Earthworms mediate the influence of polyethylene (PE) and polylactic acid (PLA) microplastics on soil bacterial communities

There is a growing body of evidence that suggests that both biodegradable and conventional (non-degradable) microplastics (MP) are hazardous to soil health by affecting the delivery of key ecological functions such as litter decomposition, nutrient cycling and water retention. Specifically, soil fauna may be harmed by the presence of MPs while also being involved in their disintegration, degradation, migration and transfer in soil. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between MPs and soil fauna is essential. Here, we conducted a 120-day soil microcosm experiment applying polyethylene (PE) and polylactic acid (PLA), in the absence/presence of the earthworm Eisenia nordenskioldi to estimate the relative singular and combined impact of MPs and earthworms on the soil bacterial community. Our findings revealed contrasting effects of PE and PLA on the composition and diversity of soil bacteria. All treatments affected the community and network structure of the soil bacterial community. Compared to the control (no MPs or earthworms), PE decreased bacterial alpha diversity, while PLA increased it. Patescibacteria were found to be significantly abundant in the PE group whereas Actinobacteria and Gemmatimonadetes were more abundant in PE, and PLA and earthworms groups. The presence of earthworms appeared to mediate the impact of PE/PLA on soil bacteria, potentially through bacterial consumption or by altering soil properties (e.g., pH, aeration, C availability). Earthworm presence also appeared to promote the chemical aging of PLA. Collectively, our results provide novel insights into the soil-fauna-driven impact of degradable/nondegradable MPs exposure on the long-term environmental risks associated with soil microorganisms.

A bizarre layer cake: Why soil animals recolonizing polluted areas shape atypical humus forms

During soil recolonization by macrofauna in areas previously defaunated by industrial pollution, non-typical humus forms are produced. Given that the evidence of zoogenic activity cessation with increased forest litter depth in these humus forms, we tested the hypothesis that the lower organic layers are more toxic than the upper ones. The studies were conducted in the southern taiga, near the Middle Ural Copper Smelter (Revda city, Russia), in spruce-fir and birch forests. We investigated the series of degraded humus forms at different recovery stages, including those without signs of regradation, as well as at the initial and advanced recovery stages. In the organic layers, each of which were 1-2 cm thick and 6-8 cm in total, we measured the following parameters: pH(water), total acidity, the content of exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+, acid-soluble and exchangeable metals (Cu, Pb, Fe, Cd, and Zn), organic carbon, and total nitrogen. Simultaneously, we diagnosed the degree of zoogenicity of the organic layers following the European morpho-functional classification of humus forms. Concentrations of the metals increased with forest litter depth, reaching a maximum at the boundary between the organic and organic-mineral horizons (the difference exceeded an order of magnitude). In the same direction, the acidity increased, but the saturation of the exchange complex with Ca2+ and Mg2+ decreased. Within a particular forest litter profile, metal concentrations and acidity were lower in the layer with the highest zoogenicity compared to the layer with the lowest zoogenicity. Based on the metals, pH(water), and exchange complex, the accuracy of the predictions of the degree of layer zoogenicity within the OF horizon in the discriminant analysis reached 100 %. These findings suggest that the vertical gradient of toxic burden persisting in the forest litter after pollution cessation can explain the recovery pattern of humus forms in the contaminated areas.

Evaluation of the toxic effects of fluindapyr, a novel SDHI fungicide, to the earthworms Eisenia fetida

The emergence of resistance to existing succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor fungicides (SDHIs) calls for the urgent innovation of novel formulations, but also results in an increase information gap on the ecological risks of novel SDHIs especially to non-target organisms. Herein, the environmental behavior and toxicological effects of a novel SDHI, fluindapyr (FIP), were evaluated using earthworm as model non-target organism. Results showed that FIP had a relatively shorter half-live (about 28 days) in artificial soil compared with traditional SDHIs. Besides, FIP exhibited a rapid uptake and bioaccumulation trend in earthworms. For the toxicological effects, FIP suppressed earthworm growth (≥ 5 mg/kg) and reproduction (≥ 1 mg/kg) whereas no lethal effects were observed up to the highest tested concentration of 25 mg/mg. FIP of high exposure concentrations also induced serious epidermis and intestines damage as well as oxidative stress to earthworms after 28-day exposure. In addition, expression of oxidative damage related genes (CAT, CRT, GST, HSP70, SOD) was further verified after FIP exposure. The earthworm Tier 1 RQ also indicated a potential risk for earthworm reproduction. Data presented here may be useful for the risk assessments of FIP in soil ecosystems and help to set appropriate precautions to ensure protection against novel SDHIs.

Effect of bio-based microplastics on earthworms Eisenia andrei

The contribution of bio-based plastics in the global market is gradually growing and diversifying. Therefore, it is necessary to assess their environmental impact including the biotic parts of ecosystems. Earthworms are regarded as functionally essential and useful bioindicators of ecological disturbances in the terrestrial ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of three innovative bio-based plastics on earthworms Eisenia andrei in the long-term experiments. It comprised the mortality, body mass and reproduction ability of earthworms as well as the oxidative stress response. Regarding the latter the activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) involved in the antioxidant system of earthworms were determined. Two out of three bio-based materials tested were polylactic acid-based (PLA-based) plastics, while one was poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate)-based (PHBV-based) plastic. Neither mortality nor weight of adult earthworms was affected even at high concentration of the bio-based plastics up to 12.5 % w/w in the soil. Reproduction ability occurred to be more sensitive endpoint than mortality or body mass. At the concentration of 12.5 % w/w each of the studied bio-based plastics contributed to the decrease of the earthworm reproduction at statistically significant level. PLA-based plastics exerted stronger effect on earthworm reproduction ability than PHBV-based plastic did. CAT activity turned out to be a good indicator of the cellular response against oxidative stress induced by bio-based plastics in earthworms. The activity of this enzyme increased in the response to the exposure to the bio-based plastics compared to the level achieved in the control tests. It was from 16 % to about 84 % dependent on the material tested and its concentration in the soil. Finally, the reproduction ability and catalase activity are recommended to be used in the evaluation of the potential impacts of bio-based plastics on earthworms.

Vermicomposting technology - A perspective on vermicompost production technologies, limitations and prospects

The need for environmental sustainability while increasing the quantity, quality, and the rate of waste treatment to generate high-value environmental friendly fertilizer products is highly in demand. Vermicomposting is a good technology for the valorisation of industrial, domestic, municipal and agricultural wastes. Various vermicomposting technologies have been in use from time past to present. These technologies range from windrow, small - scale batch vermicomposting to large - scale continuous flow systems. Each of these processes has its own merits and demerits, necessitating advancement in the technology for efficient treatment of wastes. This work explores the hypothesis that the use of a continuous flow vermireactor system of a composite frame structure performs better than batch, windrow and other continuous systems operated in a single container. Following an in-depth review of the literature on vermicomposting technologies, treatment techniques, and reactor materials used, to explore the hypothesis, it was found that vermireactors operating in continuous flow fashion perform better in waste bioconversion than the batch and windrow techniques. Overall, the study concludes that batch techniques using plastic vermireactors predominate over the other reactor systems. However, the use of frame compartmentalized composite vermireactors performs considerably better in waste valorisation.

Prospects of earthworm coelomic fluid as a potential therapeutic agent to treat cancer

Cancer is a major public health concern because it is one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. As a result, numerous studies have reported the development of new therapeutic compounds with the aim of selectively treating cancer while having little negative influence on healthy cells. In this context, earthworm coelomic fluid has been acknowledged as a rich source of several bioactive substances that may exhibit promising anticancer activity. Therefore, the objective of the present review is to evaluate the findings of the reported studies exploring the antitumor effects of coelomic fluid in the context of its possible utilization as a natural therapeutic agent to cure different types of cancer. The possible mechanisms underlying the coelomic fluid's anticancerous potential as well as the possibility for future development of cutting-edge therapeutic agents utilizing coelomic fluid-derived natural bioactive compounds to treat cancer disorders have been discussed along with future challenges. In addition, the feasibility of encapsulation of bioactive compounds derived from coelomic fluid with nanomaterials that could be further explored to attain more effective anticancer competence is discussed.

Influence of soil organic matter content on the toxicity of pesticides to soil invertebrates: A review

A better understanding of how soil organic matter (OM) content influences pesticide toxicity to soil invertebrates is needed to improve the ecological relevance of risk assessment approaches. In the current study, soil invertebrate toxicity data (LC50 and EC50 values) were collected from studies determining the toxicity of organic chemicals in soils with varying OM content. Relevant studies were identified by performing a literature search and through the use of toxicity databases. The data were used to address the following questions: (1) Can the relationship between toxicity and soil OM content be quantified? (2) Does soil OM content influence different toxicity endpoints in a similar way? (3) Is the influence of soil OM content on sensitivity to pesticides different between species? The results indicate that toxicity-OM relationships are chemical dependent, differ between endpoints, and are species-specific. Hence, the grouping of chemicals based solely on their lipophilicity, as well as having only one correction factor for multiple species, may not be an appropriate approach to risk assessment. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:1457-1472. © 2023 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Genetic evidence behind the Cd resistance of wild Metaphire californica: The global RNA regulation rather than specific mutation of well-known gene

Heavy metal contamination presents a profound threat to terrestrial biodiversity, yet the genetic adaptation and evolution of field organisms under persistent stress are poorly understood. In this study, the Cd-resistant earthworms Metaphire californica collected from the control (Meihua, MHC) and elevated-pollution (Lupu, LPC) pairwise sites were used to elucidate the underlying genetic mechanism. A 48-h acute test showed that LPC worms exhibited 2.34 times higher LC50 (50% lethal concentration values) compared to MHC ones. The Cd bioaccumulation, metallothionein (MT) protein contents, and MT gene expression of LPC M.californica were all significantly higher than those of MHC worms. The well-known MT gene of M.californica was successfully cloned and identified, however, the encoding nucleotide and amino acids displayed non-observable mutations and the phylogenetic tree also revealed that different populations clustered together. Additionally, the results of transcriptomics sequencing demonstrated 173 differentially expressed genes between LPC and MHC worms, primarily involved in stress-response and detoxification pathways, including signal transduction, material metabolism, and protein exports. The above results confirmed that the crucial MT gene did not undergo genetic mutations but rather exhibited global mRNA regulation responsible for the Cd resistance of M.californica. The current study partially disclosed the stress adaptation and evolution of organisms under long-term in situ contamination, which provides insights into maintaining biodiversity under adverse environment.

Physiological and behavioral assessment of Metaphire posthuma in response to clothianidin insecticide: Insights from molecular and biochemical analysis

In the present study, Clothianidin [(E) - 1-(2 - chloro-1,3 - thiazol - 5-ylmethyl) - 3-methyl - 2- nitroguanidine] (CLO) was selected as a soil pollutant and earthworm was employed as a test organism. The various responses like biochemical and detoxification process of earthworm Metaphire posthuma towards Clothianidin at lethal and sublethal doses were studied using OECD-standardized toxicological guidelines. The present study examined the toxicity of CLO to earthworms after 28 days of exposure at conc. 0, 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 mg kg-1 in a soil mixture. Biochemical markers including Guaiacol peroxidase (POD), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), Glutathione S-transferase (GST) and content of Malondialdehyde (MDA) in earthworms were measured. Acute toxicity tests revealed that CLO caused a concentration-dependent increase in mortality with LC50 (Lethal concentration) values of 10.960 and 8.201 mg kg-1 for 7th and 14th day respectively. The earthworms were exposed to CLO contaminated soil for 56 days and reflecting the significant decrease in earthworm growth, cocoon and hatchling production. Moreover, enzyme activities such as CAT, SOD, POD and MDA content were significantly enhanced with the increased concentration and exposure period of CLO. Molecular docking studies indicated that CLO primarily interacts to the junction site of SOD and in active centres of CAT, POD and GST. As a result, the current findings imply that the sub chronic CLO exposure can induce variations in physiology and avoidance behaviour of earthworms, oxidative stress as well as alterations in enzyme activities.

Integrated microbiome and multi-omics analysis reveal the molecular mechanisms of Eisenia fetida in response to biochar-derived dissolved and particulate matters

At present, most ecotoxicological studies are still confined to focusing on the harmful effects of biochar itself on soil fauna. However, the potential ecotoxicity of different components separated from biochar to terrestrial invertebrates remains poorly understood. In this study, the dissolved matter (DM) and particulate matter (PM) were separated from biochar (BC) and then introduced into the soil-earthworm system to investigate the response mechanism of earthworms at the molecular level. The results showed that BC and DM exposure caused an increase in the abundance of Proteobacteria in the cast bacterial community, suggesting the dysbiosis of intestinal microbiota. It was also observed that the cast bacterial communities were more sensitive to DM exposure than PM exposure. Transcriptomic analysis showed that BC and DM exposure induced significant enrichment of functional pathways related to infectious and neuropathic diseases. Metabolomic profiling manifested that DM exposure caused metabolic dysfunction, antioxidant and detoxification abilities recession. Furthermore, significant differences in the responses of earthworms at transcriptomic and metabolic levels confirmed that DM exhibited greater ecotoxicity than PM. This study highlighted the significant contributions of dissolved matter to the ecotoxicity of biochar from the perspective of transcriptomic and metabolomic profiles.

Genotoxic and mutagenic evaluation in Eisenia foetida annelids exposed to iron ore tailings from the region of Brumadinho, MG, Brazil

Soils that have a disproportion of metallic elements due to anthropic activities endanger the terrestrial fauna. This study evaluated whether earthworms (Eisenia foetida) exposed to ore tailings from Brumadinho region presented a higher frequency of genotoxic and mutagenic damages than annelids from a reference area (control). The animals were exposed to substrates containing 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% iron mining waste. The results indicated increased DNA damage (p < 0.05), detected by the comet assay at 25% and 50%. There was a three-fold increase in micronuclei in animals on the substrates with the highest concentrations (75% and 100%) [F = 3.095; p = 0.02]. The earthworms lost weight as the percentage of mining waste increased. We concluded that E. foetida presented DNA damage in the contaminated soils of Brumadinho. However, more research is fundamental, once the environmental disaster in Brumadinho was one of the biggest mining catastrophe in Brazil.

Analysis of polyhalogenated carbazoles and two related compounds in earthworms using a modified QuEChERS method with GC/MS and GC/MS/MS

A precise analytical method based on QuEChERS has been proposed for the concurrent determination of 11 polyhalogenated carbazoles (PHCZs), benzocarbazole (BZCZ), and 9H-carbazoles (CZ). The quantification was confirmed by gas chromatography using triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (Shimadzu GC-MS/MS-TQ8040) and gas chromatography coupled mass spectrometry (Agilent 7890A-5973 GC-MS). The developed method was validated by testing the following parameters: linearity, instrument limit of detection (LOD), instrument limit of quantification (LOQ), method limit of detection (MLD), method limit of quantification (MLQ), matrix effect (ME), accuracy, and precision. All compounds showed good linearity in the range of 0.005-0.2 μg/mL with correlation coefficients higher than 0.992. The method demonstrated satisfactory recoveries (ranging from 71.21 to 105.04%) for most of the compounds with relative standard deviation precision (RSD) < 10.46%, except 3-BCZ (Recovery = 67.53%, RSD = 2.83%). The values of LOD and LOQ varied from 0.05 to 0.24 ng and 0.14 to 0.92 ng, respectively, while those of MLD and MLQ ranged from 0.02 to 0.12 ng/g wet weight (ww) and 0.07 to 0.45 ng/g ww, respectively. The developed method represents a reliable tool for the routine analysis of PHCZ congeners in invertebrate animals.

Acidification of previously limed upland pastures - An overlooked flood risk factor?

In low-lying land, the impact of agriculture on flooding has focussed on soil compaction, whilst in the uplands there has been more interest in the influence of afforestation. The potential effect of acidification of previously limed upland grassland soils on this risk has been overlooked. The marginal economics of upland farms has led to inadequate lime application on these grasslands. In Wales, UK, agronomic improvement of upland acid grasslands with liming was widespread in the last century. The extent and topographical distribution of this land use in Wales was estimated and these characteristics were mapped in four catchments studied in more detail. Then 41 sites on improved pastures within the catchments were sampled, where lime had not been applied for periods of between two and 30 years; unimproved acid pastures adjacent to five of these sites were also sampled. Soil pH, organic matter, infiltration rates and earthworm populations were recorded. Grasslands at risk of acidification without maintenance liming were estimated to cover almost 20 % of upland Wales. The majority of these grasslands were located on steeper slopes (gradients >7^o) where any reduction in infiltration would promote surface runoff and limit rainwater retention. The extent of these pastures varied markedly between the four study catchments. There was a 6-fold reduction in infiltration rates between high and low pH soils, and this trend was correlated with reductions in anecic earthworm abundance. The vertical burrows of these earthworms are important for infiltration and no such earthworms were present in the most acidic soils. Recently limed soils had infiltration rates similar to those of unimproved acid pastures. Soil acidification has the potential to exacerbate flood risk but further research is needed to assess the extent of any impact. Modelling of catchment specific flood risk should include the extent of upland soil acidification as an additional land use factor.

Earthworms synergize with indigenous soil functional microorganisms to accelerate the preferential degradation of the highly toxic S-enantiomer of the fungicide imazalil in soil

The roles of soil and earthworm gut microorganisms in the degradation of the chiral fungicide imazalil (IMA) enantiomers were systemically studied in soil-earthworm systems. S-IMA degraded slower than R-IMA in soil without earthworms. After the addition of earthworms, S-IMA degraded faster than R-IMA. Methylibium was the potential degradative bacterium likely related to the preferential degradation of R-IMA in soil. However, the addition of earthworms significantly decreased the relative abundance of Methylibium, especially in R-IMA-treated soil. Meanwhile, a new potential degradative bacterium Aeromonas first appeared in soil-earthworm systems. Compared with enantiomer-treated soil, the relative abundance of indigenous soil bacterium Kaistobacter significantly boomed in enantiomer-treated soil with earthworms. Interestingly, Kaistobacter in the earthworm gut also obviously increased after exposure to enantiomers, particularly in S-IMA-treated soil, which was associated with the significant increase in Kaistobacter in soil. More importantly, the relative abundances of Aeromonas and Kaistobacter in S-IMA-treated soil were obviously higher than those in R-IMA-treated soil after the addition of earthworms. Moreover, these two potential degradative bacteria were also potential bacterial hosts of the biodegradation genes p450 and bph. Collectively, gut microorganisms are important helpers in soil pollution remediation by participating in the preferential degradation of S-IMA mediated by indigenous soil microorganisms.

Biochemical response of two earthworm taxa exposed to freezing

Several earthworm species are known to be able to withstand freezing. At the biochemical level, this ability is based on cryoprotectant accumulation as well as several other mechanisms. In this study, we used ¹H NMR to investigate metabolomic changes in two freeze-tolerant earthworm taxa, Dendrobaena octaedra and one of the genetic lineages of Eisenia sp. aff. nordenskioldi f. pallida. A total of 45 metabolites were quantified. High concentrations of glucose were present in frozen tissues of both taxa. No other putative cryoprotectants were found. We detected high levels of glycolysis end products and succinate in frozen animals, indicating the activation of glycolysis. Concentrations of many other substances also significantly increased. On the whole, metabolic change in response to freezing was much more pronounced in the specimens of Eisenia sp. aff. nordenskioldi f. pallida, including signs of nucleotide degradation.

Heavy metal accumulation, biochemical and transcriptomic biomarkers in earthworms Eisenia andrei exposed to industrially contaminated soils from south-eastern Tunisia (Gabes Governorate)

Heavy metal pollution is causing harmful consequences on soil fertility, and earthworms are frequently employed as test organisms to evaluate the ecotoxicity of polluted soils. In this study, Eisenia andrei was exposed for 7 and 14 days to polymetallic contaminated soils collected from an industrial zone in the south-eastern Tunisia. Earthworm growth, heavy metal accumulation, genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, biochemical and transcriptional responses were determined. Results revealed a higher accumulation of heavy metals in earthworms after 14 than 7 days of soil exposure, a reduction in lysosomal membrane stability (LMS), besides an increase in micronuclei frequency (MN). Moreover, earthworm oxidative status was affected in terms of increases in malondialdehyde (MDA) and metallothionein (MTs) content, and enhancement of catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities. An inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was also observed in treated earthworms, whereas transcriptional data demonstrated an up-regulation of cat, gst, mt, p21 and topoisomerase genes. Overall, these findings support the use of earthworms as suitable bioindicator species for pollution monitoring and assessment, advance our understanding of the interaction between heavy metals and earthworms, and provide valuable information about the harmful impact of biota exposure to naturally contaminated soils.

Impact of progressively cumulative exposure of AgNPs on earthworms (Eisenia fetida) and implication for eco-toxicological risk assessment

Hazardous pollutants released into the real environment mostly own long-lasting cumulative characteristics and have progressively negative impacts on organisms, which are always neglected in laboratory toxicological tests. Here in this study, the different ecotoxicity of Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) on earthworm Eisenia fetida was compared via various endpoints and transcriptional sequencing between the 28-day progressively repeated (from 60 to 80, final 100 mg/kg) and one-step (directly to 100 mg/kg) exposure. The results showed that earthworms under progressively repeated exposure showed significantly less biomass loss and reproductive inhibition, as well as lower Ag bioaccumulation (15.6 mg/kg) compared with one-step exposure (17.9 mg/kg). The increases in enzyme activities (superoxide enzyme and catalase) and gene expression (metallothionein) also implied higher antioxidant and genetic toxicity in one-step exposed earthworms compared with those from progressively repeated exposure. Furthermore, the transcriptomic analysis identified 582 and 854 differentially expressed genes in the treatments of one-step and repeated exposure respectively compared with the control group. The results of pathway annotation and classification suggested similar enrichments of damage induction but different in toxic stress responses, whereas earthworms from repeated exposure possessed more detoxification-related pathways like translation and multicellular organismal processes. This study innovatively took into account the impacts of processive exposure occurring in the real environment and elucidated distinctions of toxicity and adaptation caused by different exposure patterns, which provided the theoretical basis for real risk identification under the framework and guidance of traditional toxicology, also the implication for the improvement of eco-toxicological risk assessment.

A Modeling Approach for Assessing Ecological Risks of Neonicotinoid Insecticides from Emission to Nontarget Organisms: A Case Study of Cotton Plant

The use of neonicotinoid insecticides in agriculture has posed threats to ecological systems, and there is a need to assess the ecological risks of neonicotinoids from emission to nontarget organisms. We introduced a modeling approach to assess the ecological risks of neonicotinoids using honeybee and earthworm as model organisms, and the simulation was flexible under different environmental conditions. Using the cotton plant as an example, the simulation results demonstrated that under current recommended application rates, the use of common neonicotinoid insecticides posed no threat to earthworms, with the simulated risk quotients (RQs) much lower than 1. However, the simulation for some neonicotinoid insecticides (e.g., acetamiprid) indicated that using these insecticides on cotton plants could threaten honeybees, with simulated RQs higher than 1. The variability analysis showed that in high-latitude regions, the unacceptable risk to honeybees posed by insecticide application can be further elevated due to cold, wet weather that results in relatively high insecticide levels in pollen and nectar. The model evaluation showed large overlaps of simulated risk intervals between the proposed and existing (BeeREX) models. Because the proposed and existing models have different simulation mechanisms, we recommend that these two models be used together to complement each other in future studies. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:928-938. © 2023 SETAC.

Variation in the Chemical Sensitivity of Earthworms from Field Populations to Imidacloprid and Copper

The chemical risk of pesticides for nontarget soil macroorganisms has mainly been assessed using the compost earthworm Eisenia fetida. However, E. fetida does not occur in agroecosystems, and it is generally less sensitive than other earthworm species. Thus, the extrapolation of its response to pesticides to other earthworm species may lead to uncertainties in risk assessment. Because toxicity data for other earthworms are scarce, we assessed the chemical sensitivity of five species (Allolobophora chlorotica, Aporrectodea caliginosa, Aporrectodea longa, Aporrectodea rosea, and Lumbricus rubellus) from different habitats (forests, wetlands, and grasslands), as well as E. fetida, to imidacloprid and copper in single-species acute toxicity tests. In addition, we examined the relationship between earthworm traits (ecotype and weight), habitat characteristics (ecosystem type and soil pH), and chemical sensitivity. The lower limits of the hazardous concentration affecting 5% (HC5) of species were 178.99 and 0.32 mg active ingredient/kg dry weight for copper and imidacloprid, respectively. Some concentrations that have been measured in European agroecosystems for both pesticides were above the HC5s, indicating toxic risks for these organisms. Furthermore, soil pH from the sampling habitat played a significant role, with earthworms sampled from extremely acidic soils being less sensitive to copper than earthworms from neutral soils. In addition, endogeic earthworms were more sensitive to imidacloprid than epigeic earthworms. This may translate to changes in soil functions such as bioturbation, which is mainly carried out by endogeic earthworms. Our results suggest that risk assessment should include a wider range of earthworms covering different habitats and ecosystem functions to achieve a better protection of the biological functions carried out by these key soil organisms. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:939-947. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Effect of different exposure times and doses of cyantraniliprole on oxidative stress and genotoxicity in earthworms (Eisenia fetida)

Cyantraniliprole, the second generation of diamide insecticides, is widely used to control various pests, which will certainly result in adverse effects on earthworms in soil. In this study, after exposure with six doses of cyantraniliprole (0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg kg^-1) by artificial soil method, six biomarkers, four functional genes, and histopathological changes of Eisenia fetida were measured on the 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th days. The comprehensive toxicity was assessed by the IBR version 2 (IBRv2) method. The results showed that the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was induced significantly. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was activated in 7-28 days. The catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferases (GST) activities were also activated in the initial 14 days. The 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents in the high treatment increased until the late stage of exposure. On the 28th day, the metallothionein (MT) and calreticulin (CRT) genes were up-regulated, the transcriptionally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) gene was down-regulated. The SOD gene showed a good correlation with SOD activity. Extensive histopathological damage was found in the endoderm and ectoderm of E. fetida. The 5 and 10 mg kg^-1 treatments showed higher comprehensive toxicity than the 0.5, 1, and 2.5 mg kg^-1 treatments on the 28th day. These results suggest that cyantraniliprole exerted certain subchronic toxic effects of oxidative stress, DNA damage, and histopathological changes to E. fetida, which provided theoretical basis for rational use of cyantraniliprole and evaluation of its safety to soil environment.

Extreme environmental doses of diisobutyl phthalate exposure induce oxidative stress and DNA damage in earthworms (Eisenia fetida): Evidence at the biochemical and molecular levels

Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), as a plasticizer, is widely used and has caused many extreme soil contamination scenarios, posing potential risks to soil fauna. However, the toxic effects and mechanisms of DIBP on soil fauna remain unclear. In this study, earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were used as model animals to explore the subchronic toxicity of extreme DIBP soil exposure (300, 600, and 1200 mg/kg) for 28 days. The results showed that the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in E. fetida were significantly increased during continuous DIBP exposure. In addition, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) were significantly inhibited while glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity was activated during continuous exposure. Integrated biological response (IBR) analysis showed that DIBP had positive dose-dependent toxicity and negative time-dependent toxicity to E. fetida, and SOD/CAT were selected as sensitive biomarkers. The molecular docking study found that DIBP could stably bind to SOD/CAT through hydrogen bonding, which further proved its sensitivity. This study provides primary data for ecological and environmental risk assessment of extreme dose DIBP soil pollution.

Evaluation of soil ecological health after exposure to environmentally relevant doses of Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate: Insights from toxicological studies of earthworms at different ecological niches

As one of the most critical soil faunas in agroecosystems, earthworms are significant in preserving soil ecological health. Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a major plasticizer and widely used in plastic products like agricultural films. However, it has become ubiquitous contaminant in agricultural soil and poses a potential threat to soil health. Although the awareness of the impacts of DEHP on soil ecology is increasing, its adverse effects on soil invertebrates, especially earthworms, are still not well developed. In this study, the ecotoxicological effects and underlying mechanisms of environmentally relevant doses DEHP on earthworms of different ecological niches were investigated at the individual, cytological, and biochemical levels, respectively. Results showed that the acute toxicity of DEHP to M. guillelmi was higher than E. foetida. DEHP induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and further caused oxidative damage (including cellular DNA and lipid peroxidation damage) in both species, speculating that they may exhibit similar oxidative stress mechanisms. Furthermore, two earthworms presented the alleviated toxicity when re-cultured in uncontaminated circumstances, yet, the accumulated ROS in bodies could not be completely scavenged. Risk assessment indicated that the detrimental impacts of DEHP were more significant in the M. guillelmi than in E. foetida in whole experiments prides, and the biomarkers additionally showed a species-specific trend. Besides, molecular docking revealed that DEHP could bind to the active center of superoxide dismutase/catalase (SOD/CAT) by hydrogen bonding or hydrophobic interactions. Overall, this study will provide a novel insight for accurate contaminant risk assessment, and also highlight that the comprehensive biological effects of different species should be emphasized in soil ecological health diagnostics and environmental toxicology assays, as otherwise it may lead to underestimation or misestimation of the soil health risk of contaminants.

Does Activated Carbon Used for Soil Remediation Impact Eisenia fetida?

Because granular activated carbon can sequester organic pollutants, a potential strategy for reducing the bioavailability of organic contaminants in soil is through its application to the soil's surface. It is well understood that activated carbon is effective in the remediation of air, water, sediment, and soil, but less information is available on the potential toxicity of activated carbon to native wildlife following in situ remedial applications. Several studies have evaluated the effects of activated carbon on aquatic species; however, less is known about its toxicity to terrestrial species. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential lethal and sublethal effects of activated carbon on adult and juvenile Eisenia fetida, which are earthworms in the family Lumbricidae. The percentage of mortality, initial weight, and pre- and postdepuration weights of the worms were observed following exposure to a range of activated carbon concentrations, from 0.5% to 10% based on the soil's wet weight. These concentrations exceeded the 2%-4% activated carbon typically applied in the field. Activated carbon had no statistically significant effects on E. fetida survival; however, significant although inconsistent effects were observed on earthworm biomass. Although some statistical significance in biomass was observed, the biological significance of these effects is unclear. Overall, the concentrations of activated carbon applied in the field for soil remediation are unlikely to impact earthworm survival, although further testing, specifically on potential sublethal toxic effects, is required. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;00:1-11. © 2023 SETAC.

Accelerating the humification mechanism of dissolved organic matter using biochar during vermicomposting of dewatered sludge

The use of biochar can accelerate the vermicomposting process of dewatered sludge. However, the underlying mechanism of vermicompost maturity with biochar is still unclear. This study investigated the effect of biochar on sludge maturation during vermicomposting by analyzing the spectroscopic characteristics of dissolved organic matter. For this, dewatered sludge mixed with and without 5 % biochar were separately vermicomposted. The results showed that the biochar could significantly increase the biomass of earthworms as well as the activity and abundances of bacteria and eukaryotes (P < 0.05) during vermicomposting of sludge. The addition of biochar resulted in a 23.35 % increase in the ratio of absorbances at wavelengths of 250 nm and 365 nm (E₂₅₀/E₃₆₅), and a 20.50 % decrease in aromatic proteins of sludge during vermicomposting, compared to the control. The ratio of fulvic acid to humic acid contents rapidly increased from 10 to 15 days in biochar added treatment, which was earlier than that in the control. Compared to control, the biochar addition enhanced the contents of fulvic acid and humic acid in sludge vermicompost by 79.97 % and 91.54 %, respectively. During vermicomposting, the DOM maturated parameter displayed stronger correlation (P < 0.05) between each other in the treatment with biochar, rather than the control. This study suggests that the biochar addition significantly modifies the degradation pathway of dissolved organic matter, thus promoting sludge maturation during vermicomposting.

Response of soil health indicators to dung, urine and mineral fertilizer application in temperate pastures

Healthy soils are key to sustainability and food security. In temperate grasslands, not many studies have focused on soil health comparisons between contrasting pasture systems under different management strategies and treatment applications (e.g. manures and inorganic fertilisers). The aim of this study was to assess the responses of soil health indicators to dung, urine and inorganic N fertiliser in three temperate swards: permanent pasture not ploughed for at least 20 years (PP), high sugar ryegrass with white clover targeted at 30% coverage reseeded in 2013 (WC), and high sugar ryegrass reseeded in 2014 (HG). This study was conducted on the North Wyke Farm Platform (UK) from April 2017 to October 2017. Soil health indicators including soil organic carbon (SOC, measured by loss of ignition and elemental analyser), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), total nitrogen (TN), C:N ratio, soil C and N bulk isotopes, pH, bulk density (BD), aggregate stability, ergosterol concentration (as a proxy for fungi biomass), and earthworms (abundance, mass and density) were measured and analysed before and after application of dung and N fertilizer, urine and N fertiliser, and only N fertiliser. The highest SOC, TN, DOC, ergosterol concentration and earthworms as well as the lowest BD were found in PP, likely due to the lack of ploughing. Differences among treatments were observed due to the application of dung, resulting in an improvement in chemical indicators of soil health after 50 days of its application. Ergosterol concentration was significantly higher before treatment applications than at the end of the experiment. No changes were detected in BD and aggregate stability after treatment applications. We conclude that not enough time had passed for the soil to recover after the ploughing and reseeding of the permanent pasture, independently of the sward composition (HG or WC). Our results highlight the strong influence of the soil management legacy in temperate pasture and the positive effects of dung application on soil health over the short term. In addition, we point out the relevance of using standardised methods to report soil health indicators and some methodological limitations.

Application of earthworm and silicon can alleviate antibiotic resistance in soil-Chinese cabbage system with ARGs contamination

Organic fertilization is a major contributor to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the agroecosystem, which substantially increases the risk of ARGs acquisition and their transmission into human food chains. Earthworms are among the most vital soil faunas involved in the link between belowground and aboveground, and silicon is beneficial for soil health and plant stress resistance. This study aims to explore the effect of different amendment strategies (earthworm and/or silicon) and the related influencing factors on the alleviation of ARGs using high-throughput qPCR. The results showed that the application of earthworms and silicon fertilizers reduced the absolute abundance of ARGs in the rhizosphere soils, either singly or in combination. According to the structural equation model and random forest analysis, mobile genetic elements are the major factors enhancing ARGs transfers and the treatment affects ARGs in direct or indirect ways. Our results highlight the role of "rhizosphere effect" in alleviating antibiotic resistance and suggest that silicon fertilizers, together with the earthworms, can be considered as a sustainable and natural solution to mitigate high-risk ARGs spread in the soil-plant systems. Our findings provide guidance in formulating strategies for halting the spread of ARGs in the agroecosystem.

fetida after exposure to contaminated soil

Radium-226 is one of the most important radionuclides for assessing the radiation exposure in terrestrial ecosystems in terms of its significant contribution to the internal and total dose rates. A laboratory culture of Eisenia fetida was exposed to soil contaminated with ²²⁶Ra and ²³⁸U during two months. These nuclides entered the soil as a result of industrial radium production (Vodny, Komi Republic, Russia). The concentrations of ²²⁶Ra and ²³⁸U were 89000 ± 9000 and 2130 ± 270 Bq kg^-1 of soil. Bioaccumulation of ²²⁶Ra was investigated in E. fetida exposed to the radioactive soil or to a mixture containing the same radioactive soil diluted with peat and sand. The activity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra in E. fetida were higher after exposure to the contaminated soil compared to the mixture. The literature data on the radium accumulation in earthworms were considered also. Our experiments showed that the concentration ratio (CR) of ²²⁶Ra in E. fetida varied from 5.5 × 10^-4 to 4.5 × 10^-3 Bq kg^-1 f.w./Bq kg^-1 d.w. The average CRs were (6.7 ± 1.7) × 10^-4 for the earthworms E. fetida from the soil mixture and (3.2 ± 1.2) × 10^-3 for those from the radioactive soil. These CRs for ²²⁶Ra were up to two orders of magnitude lower than the values calculated by us from the results obtained by other researchers for natural earthworm populations in areas with lower levels radioactivity.

Decoding the mechanism of earthworm extract against wounds: an integrated metabolomics and network pharmacology study

Earthworms are used to cure wounds in Chinese villages for thousands of years. Recently, scientists realized their extracts could promote wound healing and they have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptosis, and anti-microbial properties, but its mechanism of promoting wound healing remains unclear. In the presented study, electronic literature databases and LC-MS/MS were used to determine earthworms' ingredients and differential metabolites. Swiss Target Prediction database was used for ingredients' target prediction and wound disease-relevant genes were found from GeneCards, OMIM, and DrugBank databases. Network pharmacology was conducted to demonstrate filtering hub targets, biological functions, and the signaling pathways of earthworms extract against wounds. Molecular docking and metabolism analysis were used to look for core target genes and key bioactive molecules from earthworms. Finally, the investigation shows 5 most important signal pathways, 5 core genes, and 6 bioactive ingredients-related cell-cell adhesion, cell proliferation, and cell migration processes could be affected by earthworms' extract. On 3rd day, the extract could regulate HIF1A and EGFR targets to make the differences of quantities of 4-pyridoxate, tetradecanoic acid, and L-kynurenine. While on 7th day, the regulation refers 6 earthworms' bioactive ingredients, 4 core genes (CTNNB1, EGFR, SRC, and CASP3), and 4 differential metabolites (4-hydoxy-2-quinolinecarboxylic acid, urocanate, deoxyinosine, creatine, and sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine). on 14th day, 2 core genes (EGFR, SRC) are influenced in the biological processes. Briefly, we found that 6 ingredients from earthworms have most bioactive and 5 core genes play an important role in promoting wound-healing processes. These discovers indicates earthworms could against wound via AGE-RAGE, PI3K-Akt, HIF1A, MAPK, and Axon guidance pathways.

Bioresponses of earthworm-microbiota symbionts to polychlorinated biphenyls in the presence of nano zero valent iron in soil

Both earthworms and nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) have been recently regarded as important approaches for in-situ remediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in soil. However, the combined action of earthworms and nZVI toward PCBs, and the biological responses of earthworm-microbiota symbionts to nZVI-PCBs co-exposure in soil remediation systems remain unclear. In this study, a 28-d exposure with different levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and nZVI was applied to earthworm Eisenia fetida in an agricultural soil. Both physiological responses of earthworms and their surrounding microbiota in gut and soil were examined. Kinetic modelling parameters showed a doubled PCB accumulation in earthworms with the presence of nZVI. Meanwhile, nZVI-PCBs coexposure synergistically stimulated the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), along with the elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) in earthworms. Based on integrated metabolomic and 16S rRNA analysis, it was found that earthworms provided certain metabolites, e.g., S-(2-hydroxyethyl)glutathione, 16-hydroxypalmitic acid, and formamide, beneficial to PCB-degrading microbiota (Novosphingobium and Achromobacter) in the intestine. Our findings of nZVI-enhanced PCB bioaccumulation and the defense mechanism afforded by the earthworm-microbiota symbionts toward PCB-nZVI exposure show the promise of combining earthworms with nZVI for the remediation of PCBs-contaminated soil.

Animal manure as a biostimulant in bioremediation of oil-contaminated soil: the role of earthworms

Human dire need for environmental sustainability have triggered researchers to seek for organic substrates as an alternative to synthetic fertilizers in order to enhance bioremediation. Presently, nitrogen-rich organic substrate not only proffered the solution but also have proven useful in enhancing the rate of bioremediation. Animal manure is a nitrogen-rich organic substrate which has been found very effective for stimulating plant growth. Some of the animal manure used by researchers are poultry droppings, cow dung, goat manure, and pig manure. In all the papers reviewed, it was gathered that animal manure enhances bioremediation by providing nutrients favoring microbial growth and activities responsible hydrocarbon degradation. However, of the four commonly used animal manure, poultry droppings was severally reported to be a better biostimulant. Also, animal manure when sun-dried and pulverized yielded better results. It was observed that animal manure serves as substrates for earthworms which further accelerates the potential of the earthworms to remediate the soil. Also, the pollution of soil by crude oil causes a surge in its carbon content which may slow down microbial growth and activities. Thorough review of literatures, however, indicates that animal manure is capable of providing appropriate nutrient concentrations to offset such imbalance. Studies continue to lay credence to the efficacy of animal manure in enhancing microbial growth and activities responsible for the biodegradation of hydrocarbons contained in crude oil. Furthermore, the co-application of animal manure with other bioremediation strategies, such as phytoremediation and vermiremediation, should be combined for effective bioremediation of oil-contaminated environment.

Effects of microplastics and chlorpyrifos on earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and their biogenic transport in sandy soil

Although microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous in agricultural soil, little is known about the effects of MPs combined with pesticides on soil organisms and their biogenic transport through the soil profile. In this study, we conducted mesocosm experiments to observe the effects of microplastics (polyethylene (LDPE-MPs) and biodegradable microplastics (Bio-MPs)) and chlorpyrifos (CPF) on earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris) mortality, growth and reproduction, as well as the biogenic transport of these contaminants through earthworm burrows. The results showed that earthworm reproduction was not affected by any treatment, but earthworm weight was reduced by 17.6% and the mortality increased by 62.5% in treatments with 28% Bio-MPs. Treatments with 28% LDPE-MPs and 7% Bio-MPs combined with CPF showed greater toxicity while the treatment with 28% Bio-MPs combined with CPF showed less toxicity on earthworm growth as compared to treatments with only MPs. The treatments with 1250 g ha^-1 CPF and 28% Bio-MPs significantly decreased the bioaccumulation of CPF in earthworm bodies (1.1 ± 0.2%, w w^-1), compared to the treatment with CPF alone (1.7 ± 0.4%). With CPF addition, more LDPE-MPs (8%) were transported into earthworm burrows and the distribution rate of LDPE-MPs in deeper soil was increased. No effect was observed on the transport of Bio-MPs. More CPF was transported into soil in the treatments with LDPE-MPs and Bio-MPs, 5% and 10% of added CPF, respectively. In addition, a lower level of the CPF metabolite 3,5,6-trichloropyridinol was detected in soil samples from the treatments with MPs additions than without MP additions, indicating that the presence of MPs inhibited CPF degradation. In conclusion, Bio-MPs caused significant toxicity effects on earthworms and the different types of MPs combined with CPF affected earthworms differently, and their transport along the soil profile. Thus, further research is urgently needed to understand the environmental risks of MPs and MP-associated compounds in the soil ecosystem.

Arsenite and arsenate toxicity in the earthworm Eisenia andrei (Bouché 1972) in natural soil and tropical artificial soil

Inorganic forms of As (arsenite - As(III) and arsenate - As(V)) are prevalent in soil and recognized for their high toxicity. Once in the soil, these forms of As can compromise key organisms for ecological processes, such as earthworms. The aim of the study was to evaluate the toxicity of arsenite and arsenate in the Californian earthworm Eisenia andrei exposed in natural soil and tropical artificial soil (TAS). Adverse effects were evaluated using avoidance test, acute toxicity test, and a sublethal concentration test to assess biochemical parameters. LC50 values for arsenite were 21.27 mg/kg in natural soil and 19.0 mg/kg in TAS and for arsenate were 76.18 mg/kg in natural soil and above 120 mg/kg in TAS. In the avoidance test, this behavior was shown to be significantly higher in the natural soil and for earthworms exposed to arsenite, while total antioxidant capacity, glutathione levels, lipid damage, and DNA damage were significantly higher in animals exposed to arsenite, but without differences in relation to the two types of soil tested. Animals exposed to As(V) showed increased activity of enzymes related to glutathione metabolism. The results obtained in the present study show the impact of As exposure on the health of the Californian earthworm E. andrei, especially in the form of arsenite, and alert the public authorities that legal limits should, whenever possible, consider the soil properties and also the different chemical species of the contaminants.

Major biotransformation of phthalic acid esters in Eisenia fetida: Mechanistic insights and association with catalytic enzymes and intestinal symbionts

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are an important group of organic pollutants that are widely used as plasticizers in the environment. The PAEs in soil organisms are likely to be biotransformed into a variety of metabolites, and the combined toxicity of PAEs and their metabolites might be more serious than PAEs alone. However, there are only a few studies on PAE biotransformation by terrestrial animals, e.g. earthworms. Herein, the key biotransformation pathways of PAEs and their association with catalytic enzymes and intestinal symbionts in earthworms were studied using in vivo and in vitro incubation approaches. The widely distributed PAE in soil, dibutyl phthalate (DBP), was proven to be biotransformed rapidly together with apparent bioaccumulation in earthworms. The biotransformation of PAE congeners with medium or long side chains appeared to be faster compared with those with short side chains. DBP was biotransformed into butyl methyl phthalate (BMP), monobutyl phthalate (MBP), and phthalic acid (PA) through esterolysis and transesterification. Besides, the generation of small quantities of low-molecular weight metabolites via β-oxidation, decarboxylation or ring-cleavage, was also observed, especially when the appropriate proportion of NADPH coenzyme was applied to transfer electrons for oxidases. Interestingly, the esterolysis of PAEs was mainly regulated by the cytoplasmic carboxylesterase (CarE) in earthworms, with a Michaelis constant (K_m) of 0.416 mM in the catalysis of DBP. The stronger esterolysis in non-intestinal tissues indicated that the CarE was primarily secreted by non-intestinal tissues of earthworms. Additionally, the intestinal symbiotic bacteria of earthworms could respond to PAE stress, leading to the changes in their diversity and composition. The enrichment of some genera e.g. Bacillus and Paracoccus, and the enhancement of metabolism function, e.g. amino acids, energy, lipids biosynthesis and oxidase secretion, indicated their important role in the degradation of PAEs.

Earthworm stocking density regulates microbial community structure and fatty acid profiles during vermicomposting of lignocellulosic waste: Unraveling the microbe-metal and mineralization-humification interactions

Earthworm-induced microbial enrichment is the key to success in vermitechnology, yet the influence of initial earthworm stocking density on microbial community profiles in vermibeds is unknown. Therefore, vermicomposting of lignocellulosic feedstock was performed with different stocking densities of two earthworms (Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae) compared with composting. Eventually, earthworm growth, microbial (activity and community profiles), and physicochemical dynamics were assessed. The earthworm population significantly increased under low stocking, while denser stocking (15/kg) was stressful. The XRD-based crystallinity assessment revealed that comminuting efficiency of Eisenia and Eudrilus was prudent at 7 and 10 worm/kg stockings, respectively. Moreover, the 5 and 7 worm/kg stockings effectively mobilized microbial activity, promoting NPK-mineralization and C-humification balance. Correlation statistics indicated that earthworm stocking density-driven microbial community shift and fatty acid profiles strongly influenced metal removal in vermibeds. Hence, the findings implied that 5-7 worm/kg stockings of earthworms produced high-quality sanitized vermicompost.

Reproductive damage and compensation of wild earthworm Metaphire californica from contaminated fields with long-term heavy metal exposure

Reproduction is a significant biological process for organisms responding to environmental stresses, however, little is known about the reproductive strategies of invertebrates under long-term exposure to contaminations. In this study, earthworm Metaphire californica (Kinberg, 1867) from contaminated fields with an increased metal gradient were collected to investigate their reproductive responses. The results showed heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb) induced histological damage to earthworms' seminal vesicles, including tissue disorders and cavities, and decreases in mature spermatozoa. Sperm morphology analysis indicated deformity rates were up to13.2% (e.g. head swollen or missing) for worms from the most contaminated site, which coincided with DNA damages. Furthermore, the computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA) system was employed for the evaluation of sperm kinetic traits. Results suggested earthworms exposed to higher contamination showed a lower sperm viability rate but faster sperm velocity after re-exposure with Cd solution (like the curvilinear velocity and straight-line velocity paraments) compared with those from relatively clean sites. The activities of lactate dehydrogenase and sorbitol dehydrogenase showed the highest 32.5% and 12.5% up-regulation respectively with the increased metal gradient. In conclusion, this study elucidated the earthworm reproductive toxicity, underlying reproductive compensation, metal stress-induced damages, and adaptive responses caused by heavy metal exposure, while also providing the possibility of sperm trait analysis (CASA) for related earthworm toxicological studies.

Stereoselective bioaccumulation and dissipation of pyrisoxazole in earthworm-soil microcosm

Pyrisoxazole is a chiral fungicide with high sterilizing activity to the plant pathogenic bacteria. It has two chiral C atoms, which bring four stereoisomers. The present work was the first time to explore the stereoselective bioaccumulation behavior of pyrisoxazole in earthworms by chiral liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF/MS). The absolute configurations of pyrisoxazole stereoisomers were confirmed by circular dichroism (CD) coupled with calculated electronic circular dichroism (ECD) method, and the elution order in Lux Cellulose-3 column was as follows: (-)-3S, 5R-pyrisoxazole, (+)-3R, 5S-pyrisoxazole, (+)-3S, 5S-pyrisoxazole and (-)-3R, 5R-pyrisoxazole. The recoveries of pyrisoxazole stereoisomers in earthworm and soil samples ranged from 80.8 % to 101 % with the RSD lower than 6.3 %. In bioaccumulation progress, (+)-3R, 5S-pyrisoxazole was accumulated preferentially in earthworms, and the bioaccumulation concentrations of high-activity (-)-3S, 5R-pyrisoxazole were the lowest. There were no stereoselective bioaccumulation between (+)-3S, 5S-pyrisoxazole and (-)-3R, 5R-pyrisoxazole, while there was diastereoselectivity between Z-pyrisoxazole and E-pyrisoxazole with higher E-pyrisoxazole concentrations. In the whole bioaccumulation process, the BAF values of (+)-3R, 5S-pyrisoxazole were significantly higher than (-)-3S, 5R-pyrisoxazole, and the BAF values of (-)-3S, 5R-pyrisoxazole were the lowest. The dissipation of pyrisoxazole stereoisomers in the artificial soil was very slow and had no stereoselectivity, and the existence of earthworms had little effects on the dissipation of pyrisoxazole stereoisomers, which indicated that the stereoselective behaviors of pyrisoxazole in earthworms were caused by the stereoselective enrichment and dissipation of earthworms themselves. Taken together, (-)-3S, 5R-pyrisoxazole was recommend as a commercial product. This study played a positive role in guiding the development of environmentally friendly pesticides and provided database for the environmental and biological risk assessment of pyrisoxazole.