Associations of prenatal and postnatal exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances with pubertal development and reproductive hormones in females and males: The HOME study

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), thyroid hormones, sexual hormones and pubertal development in adolescents residing in the neighborhood of a 3M factory

BACKGROUND

Near Antwerp a 3M factory has been active since 1971 emitting PFAS, mainly PFOS, in the local environment. Production of C8 compounds was stopped in 2002, production of other PFAS continued until 2024. This study aimed to examine the association between internal PFAS concentrations and thyroid hormones, sexual hormones, and pubertal development in adolescents living in the neighborhood of the factory.

METHODS

We measured PFAS in serum of 146 female and 139 male adolescents. For males sex hormones (LH, testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, inhibin B, FSH) and SHBG were measured in serum. For males and females we assessed serum thyroid hormone levels (TSH, T3, T4 and T3/T4) and pubertal development parameters self-assessed through a standardized questionnaire. Associations between PFAS concentrations and effect biomarkers/health effects were assessed through Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE), using linear models for continuous outcomes, logistic models for binary outcomes, and proportional odds models for ordinal outcomes.

RESULTS

For males LH, total and bioavailable testosterone showed significant negative associations with PFHxS and PFOA. LH and bioavailable testosterone also showed significant negative associations with other PFAS compounds. SHBG showed significant positive associations with PFDA, PFNA, PFHxS, PFOS and the sum of the linear forms of PFOS, PFOA, PFNA and PFHxS. Males' length and growth spurt showed significant negative associations with PFOS, PFOA and PFAS sum parameters and length and growth spurt separately also with other PFAS compounds. For females growth spurt showed significant negative association with PFOA and a significant positive association with PFOS(branched). For both males and females body hair development showed significant negative associations with PFHxS, and, for males and females separately also with other PFAS compounds. For females, breast development showed significant negative associations with PFOA, pubertal development scale showed significant negative associations with PFOA, PFHxS, PFOS(linear) and the sum of 4 PFAS. For males, TSH showed a significant negative association with PFDA and FT3 showed significant positive associations with PFOA, PFOA and PFNA. For females, FT3 showed a significant negative association with PFOS(branched).

CONCLUSION

We observed significant, consistent and biologically relevant associations of PFAS serum concentrations with sex hormone and SHBG levels in male adolescents. Moreover, a significant delay in physiological processes occurring in puberty was observed in females and males. Associations with thyroid hormones differed significantly by sex.

Association between perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances and adolescents' sleep disorders: NHANES 2005-2018

Background

Previous research indicates that per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) can disrupt metabolism and neurological function via endocrine pathway interference and neuroinflammation. These effects may impair melatonin secretion and disrupt circadian rhythm regulation, suggesting potential links to sleep health. However, the impact of PFAS exposure on adolescent sleep remains unclear. This study examines the associations between PFAS exposure and sleep health indicators in U.S. adolescents.

Methods

Data from 838 adolescents who participated in the 2005-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were analyzed to investigate the association between PFAS exposure and physician-diagnosed sleep disorders. Eight PFAS compounds were identified. Multivariate logistic regression models, restricted cubic spline (RCS) curves, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression were used to assess single, linear, and combined effects on adolescent sleep disorders.

Results

Negative associations were observed between adolescent sleep disorders and three PFAS compounds, specifically perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA). RCS analysis revealed a significant linear relationship (P for non-linear > 0.05). The BKMR and WQS models demonstrated a combined effect of PFAS exposure on sleep disorders, with PFOS demonstrating the most substantial contribution (effect size: 0.91). The stratified analysis revealed that PFOS exposure had a greater impact on females [odds ratio (OR): 0.54, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.33-0.87] than males (OR: 0.50, 95% CI: 0.24-1.01), suggesting sex-specific differences in vulnerability.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate a negative correlation between specific PFAS and specific sleep disorders in adolescents, with PFOS being the dominant effect component in the PFAS mixture and stronger effects observed in females. However, due to the cross-sectional nature of the study, a causal relationship cannot be established. These results highlight the potential public health impact of PFAS exposure and the need to further investigate the underlying mechanisms and causal pathways in future longitudinal or experimental studies.

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Female Health Concern: Gender-based Accumulation Differences, Adverse Outcomes, and Mechanisms

The deleterious health implications of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely recognized. Females, in contrast to males, exhibit unique pathways for PFAS exposure and excretion, leading to complex health outcomes. The health status of females is largely influenced by hormone-related processes. PFAS have been reported to be associated with various aspects of female health, including reproductive system disorders and pregnancy-related diseases. In this article, we provide insights into the correlations between PFAS and female-prevalent diseases. Current epidemiological and toxicological evidence has demonstrated that the adverse effects of PFAS on the health of the female reproductive system are primarily attributed to the disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and hormonal homeostasis. However, these findings do not sufficiently elucidate the intricate associations between PFAS and specific diseases. Furthermore, autoimmune disorders, another category that is more prevalent in women compared to men, require additional investigation. Immune biomarkers pertinent to autoimmune disorders have been observed to be influenced by PFAS exposure, although epidemiological evidence is insufficient to substantiate these relations. Further thorough exploration encompassing epidemiological and toxicological studies is essential to elucidating the inherent influence of PFAS on human pathologies. Additionally, comprehensive investigations into female health issues beyond their reproductive functions is essential.

Unveiling the Research Void: Exploring the Reproductive Effects of PFAS Compounds on Male Health

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represent an emerging concern for male reproductive health. Epidemiological studies have reported associations between increased PFAS exposure and reduced semen quality parameters, lower sperm counts, and potential alterations in reproductive hormone levels. Toxicology research has revealed possible mechanisms including blood-testis barrier disruption, oxidative stress, interference with testicular cell function, and epigenetic changes. However, significant uncertainties remain regarding definitive exposure-response relationships, developmental windows of heightened vulnerability, combined mixture effects, and causality interpretation, given limitations inherent to observational studies. Ongoing investigation of short-chain and replacement PFAS compounds is also critically needed. Additionally, directly connecting the mechanistic insights from animal models to human fertility impacts remains challenging. While controlled toxicology studies have described pathways by which PFAS could impair cellular functioning in the testes, uncertainty persists in extrapolating these experimental effects to real-world human exposures and sperm parameter declines reported epidemiologically. Overall, current findings suggest PFAS may contribute to declining male reproductive function, but additional clarification through well-designed longitudinal cohort studies integrated with mechanistic animal work is still warranted to confirm exposure-fertility links across a range of PFAS types and inform evidence-based public health mitigation strategies.

PFAS Exposure and Male Reproductive Health: Implications for Sperm Epigenetics

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent environmental contaminants found in human tissues and persist in the environment, posing significant risks to reproductive health. This review examines the impact of PFAS exposure on male reproductive health, with a focus on sperm epigenetics. PFASs disrupt endocrine function by altering key reproductive hormones and impairing sperm motility, quality, and viability. Epidemiologic and animal studies highlight inconsistent yet concerning associations between PFAS exposure and semen parameters, as well as altered gene expression and DNA methylation patterns. Moreover, PFAS exposure during critical windows of development has been linked to differential impacts on male versus female pubertal development, cognitive outcomes, and reproductive physiology, emphasizing the complexity of PFAS interactions. This comprehensive analysis highlights the need for continued research into the mechanisms by which PFASs influence reproductive health and development with potential implications for sperm epigenetics. The review emphasizes the importance of understanding the epigenetic mechanisms behind these disruptions, particularly DNA methylation and its role in heritable changes. Investigating the epigenetic modifications driven by PFAS exposure is crucial for elucidating the mechanisms by which these chemicals influence reproductive health. Future research should focus on understanding these epigenetic changes in both immediate fertility outcomes and transgenerational health risks.

Sex-specific association of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure with vitamin D concentrations in older adults in the USA: an observational study

BACKGROUND

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are commonly utilized in consumer products. While earlier studies have suggested potential impacts of certain PFAS on serum concentrations of vitamin D, these investigations were constrained to a limited set of conventional PFAS. Moreover, they did not specifically focus on populations with longer duration of PFAS exposure and potentially higher blood PFAS levels, such as older adults, and lacked adequate evidence to examine sex-related disparities.

METHODS

This observational investigation utilized cross-sectional data obtained from the U.S. NHANES spanning the years 2003 to 2018. Survey-weighted multiple regression models were employed to evaluate the relationship between PFAS exposure and vitamin D concentrations. Multi-pollutant models were employed to evaluate the association between PFAS mixtures and vitamin D concentrations. Subsequently, environmental risk scores (ERS) were constructed to gauge associations with vitamin D concentrations. ERS was computed through a weighted linear combination of PFAS, utilizing calculations from ridge regression and adaptive elasticity network (adENET) methodologies. All analyses were stratified by sex.

RESULTS

The study encompassed 3,853 older adults. Our analysis revealed a negative association between PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, and MeFOSAA and serum vitamin D concentrations. In analyses examining mixed exposures, various models consistently indicated an inverse association between PFAS mixed exposure and vitamin D concentrations. Moreover, an increase in ERS of PFAS across the interquartile range was associated with a decrease in vitamin D concentrations (Q4 vs. Q1, adENET: β: -0.083, 95% CI: -0.117, -0.048; ridge regression: β: -0.077, 95% CI: -0.111, -0.042). Notably, these associations were exclusively observed within the female population.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates that heightened exposure to PFAS correlates with diminished serum vitamin D concentrations in females aged 60 years and older, evident in both single and mixed exposures. These findings find support in in vitro mechanistic studies, suggesting that PFAS may impact the metabolism of 25(OH)D, consequently affecting vitamin D concentrations.

Adolescent F-53B exposure induces ovarian toxicity in rats: Autophagy-apoptosis interplay

As a substitute for perfluorooctane sulfonates, F-53B has permeated into the environment and can reach the human body through the food chain. Adolescent individuals are in a critical stage of development and may be more sensitive to the impacts of F-53B. In the present study, we modeled the exposure of adolescent female rats by allowing them free access to F-53B at concentrations of 0 mg/L, 0.125 mg/L, and 6.25 mg/L in drinking water, aiming to simulate the exposure in the adolescent population. Using the ovary as the focal point, we investigated the impact of developmental exposure to F-53B on female reproduction. The results indicated that F-53B induced reproductive toxicity in adolescent female rats, including ovarian lesions, follicular dysplasia and hormonal disorders. In-depth investigations revealed that F-53B induced ovarian oxidative stress, triggering autophagy within the ovaries, and the autophagy exhibited the interplay with apoptosis in turn, collectively leading to significant ovarian toxicity. Our findings provided deeper insights into the roles of the autophagy-apoptosis interplay in ovarian toxicity, and offered a new perspective on the developmental toxicity inflicted by adolescent F-53B exposure.

Adolescent exposure to a mixture of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) depletes the ovarian reserve, increases ovarian fibrosis, and alters the Hippo pathway in adult female mice

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals known for their environmental persistence and resistance to biodegradation. This study investigated the impact of adolescent exposure to a PFAS mixture on adult ovarian function. Female CD-1 mice were orally exposed to vehicle control or a PFAS mixture (comprised of perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, undecafluoro-2-methyl-3-oxahexanoic acid, and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid) for 15 d. After a 42-d recovery period, reproductive hormones, ovarian fibrosis, and ovarian gene and protein expression were analyzed using ELISA, Picrosirius red staining, qPCR, and immunoblotting, respectively. Results revealed that PFAS exposure did not affect adult body or organ weight, although ovarian weight slightly decreased. PFAS-exposed mice exhibited a disturbed estrous cycle, with less time spent in proestrus than control mice. Follicle counting indicated a reduction in primordial and primary follicles. Serum analysis revealed no changes in steroid hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone, or anti-Müllerian hormone, but a significant increase in luteinizing hormone was observed in PFAS-treated mice. Ovaries collected from PFAS-treated mice had increased mRNA transcripts for steroidogenic enzymes and fatty acid synthesis-related genes. PFAS exposure also increased collagen content in the ovary. Additionally, serum tumor necrosis factor-α levels were higher in PFAS-treated mice. Finally, transcripts and protein abundance for Hippo pathway components were upregulated in the ovaries of the PFAS-treated mice. Overall, these findings suggest that adolescent exposure to PFAS can disrupt ovarian function in adulthood.

Molecularly imprinted resin modified with ionic liquid for dispersive filter extraction and determination of perfluoroalkyl acids in eggs

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are emerging pollutants that endangers food safety. Developing methods for the selective determination of trace PFAAs in complex samples remains challenging. Herein, an ionic liquid modified porous imprinted phenolic resin-dispersive filter extraction-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (IL-PIPR-DFE-LC-MS/MS) method was developed for the determination of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in eggs. The new IL-PIPR adsorbent was prepared at room temperature, which avoids the disorder and instability of the template at high temperatures. The imprinting factor of IL-PIPR for PFOA and PFOS exceeded 7.3. DFE, combined with IL-PIPR (15 mg), was used to extract PFOA and PFOS from eggs within 15 min. The established method exhibits low limits of detection (0.01-0.02 ng/g) and high recoveries (84.7%-104.7%), which surpass those of previously reported methods. This work offers a new approach to explore advanced imprinted adsorbents for PFAAs, efficient sample pretreatment technique, and analytical method for pollutants in foods.

An environmentally relevant mixture of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) impacts proliferation, steroid hormone synthesis, and gene transcription in primary human granulosa cells

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic chemicals that are resistant to biodegradation and are environmentally persistent. PFAS are found in many consumer products and are a major source of water and soil contamination. This study investigated the effects of an environmentally relevant PFAS mixture (perfluorooctanoic acid [PFOA], perfluorooctanesulfonic acid [PFOS], perfluorohexanesulfonic acid [PFHxS]) on the transcriptome and function of human granulosa cells (hGCs). Primary hGCs were harvested from follicular aspirates of healthy, reproductive-age women who were undergoing oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilization. Liquid Chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS) was performed to identify PFAS compounds in pure follicular fluid. Cells were cultured with vehicle control or a PFAS mixture (2 nM PFHxS, 7 nM PFOA, 10 nM PFOS) for 96 h. Analyses of cell proliferation/apoptosis, steroidogenesis, and gene expression were measured via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assays/immunofluorescence, ELISA/western blotting, and RNA sequencing/bioinformatics, respectively. PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS were detected in 100% of follicle fluid samples. Increased cell proliferation was observed in hGCs treated with the PFAS mixture with no impacts on cellular apoptosis. The PFAS mixture also altered steroid hormone synthesis, increasing both follicle-stimulating hormone-stimulated and basal progesterone secretion and concomitant upregulation of STAR protein. RNA sequencing revealed inherent differences in transcriptomic profiles in hGCs after PFAS exposure. This study demonstrates functional and transcriptomic changes in hGCs after exposure to a PFAS mixture, improving our knowledge about the impacts of PFAS exposures and female reproductive health. These findings suggest that PFAS compounds can disrupt normal granulosa cell function with possible long-term consequences on overall reproductive health.

F-53B mediated ROS affects uterine development in rats during puberty by inducing apoptosis

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), as pollutants, can cause palpable environmental and health impacts around the world, as endocrine disruptors, can disrupt endocrine homeostasis and increase the risk of diseases. Chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonate (F-53B), as a substitute for PFAS, was determined to have potential toxicity. Puberty is the stage when sexual organs develop and hormones change dramatically, and abnormal uterine development can increase the risk of uterine lesions and lead to infertility. This study was designed to explore the impact of F-53B on uterine development during puberty. Four-week-old female SD rats were exposed to 0.125 and 6.25 mg/L F-53B during puberty. The results showed that F-53B interfered with growth and sex hormone levels and bound to oestrogen-related receptors, which affected their function, contributed to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, promoted cell apoptosis and inhibited cell proliferation, ultimately causing uterine dysplasia.

Evaluating the association between longitudinal exposure to a PFAS mixture and adolescent cardiometabolic risk in the HOME Study

Background

Exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) throughout gestation and childhood may impact cardiometabolic risk.

Methods

In 179 HOME Study participants (Cincinnati, OH; recruited 2003-2006), we used latent profile analysis to identify two distinct patterns of PFAS exposure from serum concentrations of four PFAS measured at birth and ages 3, 8, and 12 years. We assessed the homeostatic model of insulin resistance, triglycerides-to-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio, leptin-to-adiponectin ratio, systolic blood pressure, visceral fat, and hemoglobin A1c levels at age 12 years. We used multivariable linear regression to assess the association of membership in the longitudinal PFAS mixture exposure group with a summary measure of overall cardiometabolic risk and individual components.

Results

One PFAS exposure profile (n = 66, 39%) had higher geometric means of all PFAS across all visits than the other. Although adjusted associations were null in the full sample, child sex modified the association of longitudinal PFAS mixture exposure group with overall cardiometabolic risk, leptin-to-adiponectin ratio, systolic blood pressure, and visceral fat (interaction term P values: 0.02-0.08). Females in the higher exposure group had higher cardiometabolic risk scores (ß = 0.43; 95% CI = -0.08, 0.94), systolic blood pressures (ß = 0.6; 95% CI = 0.1, 1.1), and visceral fat (ß = 0.44; 95% CI = -0.13, 1.01); males had lower cardiometabolic risk scores (ß = -0.52; 95% CI = -1.06, -0.06), leptin-to-adiponectin ratios (ß = -0.7; 95% CI = -1.29, -0.1), systolic blood pressures (ß = -0.14; 95% CI = -0.7, 0.41), and visceral fat (ß = -0.52; 95% CI = -0.84, -0.19).

Conclusions

Exposure to this PFAS mixture throughout childhood may have sex-specific effects on adolescent cardiometabolic risk.

Association between exposure to persistent organic pollutants and pubertal timing in boys and girls: A systematic review and meta-analysis

In recent years, the phenomenon of abnormal pubertal timing in children has become increasingly common worldwide. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may be one of the risk factors contributing to this phenomenon, but the relationship between them is unclear based on current evidence. The purpose of this study was to determine the association of POPs exposure with pubertal timing in girls and boys by conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis. We searched PubMed and Embase databases for studies before June 1, 2023. Meta-analysis was performed by pooling relative risk (RR) or odds ratio (OR) or prevalence ratio (PR) or hazard ratio (HR) estimates with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs). Subgroup analysis, publication bias assessment and sensitivity analysis were also carried out. A total of 21 studies were included, involving 2479 boys and 8718 girls. The results of meta-analysis showed that exposure to POPs was significantly associated with delayed pubertal timing in girls (RR: 0.85; 95 % CI: 0.79-0.91; p < 0.001). There was no statistically significant association between exposure to POPs and pubertal timing in boys (RR: 1.18; 95 % CI: 0.99-1.40; p = 0.070). Subgroup analysis showed that there may be gender differences in the effects of exposure to POPs on pubertal timing. Our results suggested that exposure to POPs could delay pubertal timing in girls. However, based on current evidence, no significant association was found between POPs exposure and pubertal timing in boys.

Lifetime Postnatal Exposure to Perfluoroalkyl Substance Mixture and DNA Methylation at Twelve Years of Age

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) exposure has been linked to DNA methylation changes in neonates and adults. We previously reported that prenatal PFAS exposure may have a durable impact on DNA methylation from birth to adolescence. However, few studies have examined the association of postnatal PFAS exposure with alterations in DNA methylation. We examined the associations of lifetime postnatal PFAS mixture exposure with leukocyte DNA methylation in 154 adolescents from the HOME Study (2003-2006; Cincinnati, Ohio). Lifetime postnatal PFAS mixture exposure was estimated using latent profile analysis of four PFAS concentrations measured at birth, and ages 3, 8, and 12 years. We measured DNA methylation in peripheral leukocytes at 12 years using the Illumina HumanMethylation EPIC BeadChip. We estimated covariate-adjusted associations between postnatal PFAS mixture concentrations and DNA methylation measures using linear regression, and used KEGG enrichment analysis to identify molecular pathways. Four significant differentially methylated positions were observed in the higher vs. lower PFAS profile (FDR p-value <0.05). These PFAS-associated CpG sites annotated to gene regions related to various cancers, cognition, and cardiometabolic health. We identified 17 pathways (FDR p-value <0.05), which indicates possible mechanism linking PFAS exposure to several health effects.

Exposure to Perfluoroalkyl Substances and Associations with Pubertal Onset and Serum Reproductive Hormones in a Longitudinal Study of Young Girls in Greater Cincinnati and the San Francisco Bay Area

BACKGROUND

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), endocrine disrupting chemicals with worldwide exposure, cause changes in mammary gland development in rodents. A few human studies report delay in pubertal events with increasing perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) exposure, but to our knowledge none have examined reproductive hormone levels at thelarche.

METHODS

In a cohort of Greater Cincinnati (GC) and San Francisco Bay Area (SFBA) girls recruited at 6-8 years of age, clinical examinations were conducted annually or semiannually with sequential Tanner staging. PFAS concentrations were measured in the first serum sample of 704 girls. In 304 GC girls, estradiol (E 2 ), estrone (E 1 ), testosterone (T), and dihydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) were measured in serum at four time points around puberty. Relationships between PFAS and age at thelarche, pubarche, and menarche were analyzed using survival and structural equation models. The association between PFAS and reproductive hormones was assessed using linear regression models.

RESULTS

Median PFOA serum concentrations in GC (N = 353 , 7.3  ng / mL ) and the SFBA (N = 351 , 5.8  ng / mL ) were higher than in the U.S.

POPULATION

In multivariable Cox proportional hazard models [adjusted for race, body mass index (BMI)], increasing serum log-transformed PFOA was associated with a delay in pubarche [hazard ratio  ( HR ) = 0.83 ; 95% CI: 0.70, 0.99] and menarche (HR = 0.04 ; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.25). Structural equation models indicated a triangular relationship between PFOA, BMI percentile, and the age at the pubertal milestone. Increased PFOA had a statistically significant direct effect of delay on all three milestones, as did BMI. Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDeA), and 2-(N -methyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamido) acetic acid (Me-PFOSA-AcOH) also were associated with later thelarche, and Me-PFOSA-AcOH also with later pubarche. PFOA was inversely associated with DHEAS (p < 0.01 ), E 1 (p = 0.04 ), and T (p = 0.03 ) concentrations at 6 months prior to puberty.

CONCLUSIONS

PFAS may delay pubertal onset through the intervening effects on BMI and reproductive hormones. The decreases in DHEAS and E 1 associated with PFOA represent biological biomarkers of effect consistent with the delay in onset of puberty. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11811.