Advancement of cancer immunotherapy using nanoparticles-based nanomedicine

Combating cancer immunotherapy resistance: a nano-medicine perspective

Cancer immunotherapy offers renewed hope for treating this disease. However, cancer cells possess inherent mechanisms that enable them to circumvent each stage of the immune cycle, thereby evading anti-cancer immunity and leading to resistance. Various functionalized nanoparticles (NPs), modified with cationic lipids, pH-sensitive compounds, or photosensitizers, exhibit unique physicochemical properties that facilitate the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to cancer cells or the tumor microenvironment (TME). These NPs are engineered to modify immune activity. The crucial signal transduction pathways and mechanisms by which functionalized NPs counteract immunotherapy resistance are outlined, including enhancing antigen presentation, boosting the activation and infiltration of tumor-specific immune cells, inducing immunogenic cell death, and counteracting immunosuppressive conditions in the TME. Additionally, this review summarizes current clinical trials involving NP-based immunotherapy. Ultimately, it highlights the potential of nanotechnology to advance cancer immunotherapy.

Phospholipid metabolism and drug resistance in cancer

Phospholipids, complex lipids prevalent in the human body, play crucial roles in various pathophysiological processes. Beyond their synthesis and degradation, phospholipids can influence chemoresistance by participating in ferroptosis. Extensive evidence highlights the significant link between tumor drug resistance and phospholipids. Therefore, drugs targeting phospholipid metabolism itself or the synthesis of corresponding composite materials will effectively overcome the difficulties of clinical tumor treatment.

An updated landscape on nanopharmaceutical delivery for mitigation of colon cancer

Globally, colorectal cancer (CRC) continues to rank among the leading causes of cancer-related death. Systemic toxicity, multidrug resistance, and nonspecific targeting often pose challenges to conventional therapy for CRC. Because it is a complex disease with a complex genetic and environmental pathophysiology, advanced therapeutic strategies are needed. Nanotechnology presents a potential solution that may maximize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing negative effects by enabling personalized delivery of anticancer drugs. This review focuses on recent developments in colorectal drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology. Numerous nanomaterials, including liposomes, dendrimers, micelles, exosomes, and gold nanoparticles, are developed and used. Distinctive characteristics of mentioned nanocarriers are discussed along with strategies that can be employed for enhancing the delivery of drugs to colorectal cancer cells. The review also quotes the most relevant preclinical and clinical studies that show how these nanomaterials improve drug solubility, stability, and targeted delivery while overcoming the shortcomings of conventional therapies. Nanotechnology has made CRC treatment very efficient and advanced, which has opened up new possibilities for targeted drug delivery. Preclinical and clinical studies have also proved that the use of nano-formulations in colon-specific delivery systems have significant results, indicating potential for better patient outcomes. Future research can be done in order to overcome the hurdles regarding biocompatibility, expansion, and regulatory challenges. Large-scale clinical trials and nanomaterial formulation optimization should be the main goals of future research to confirm the efficacy and safety of these novel treatments.

Utilizing Nanoparticles to Overcome Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 Immunotherapy Resistance in Non-Small Cell Lung cancer: A Potential Strategy

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality globally, with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) constituting 85% of cases. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) represented by anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/ programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) have emerged as a promising frontier in cancer treatment, effectively extending the survival of patients with NSCLC. However, the efficacy of ICIs exhibits significant variability across diverse patient populations, with a substantial proportion showing poor responsiveness and acquired resistance in those initially responsive to ICIs treatments. With the advancement of nanotechnology, nanoparticles offer unique advantages in tumor immunotherapy, including high permeability and prolonged retention(EPR) effects, enhanced drug delivery and stability, and modulation of the inflammatory tumor microenvironment(TME). This review summarizes the mechanisms of resistance to ICIs in NSCLC, focusing on tumor antigens loss and defective antigen processing and presentation, failure T cell priming, impaired T cell migration and infiltration, immunosuppressive TME, and genetic mutations. Furthermore, we discuss how nanoparticles, through their intrinsic properties such as the EPR effect, active targeting effect, shielding effect, self-regulatory effect, and synergistic effect, can potentiate the efficacy of ICIs and reverse resistance. In conclusion, nanoparticles serve as a robust platform for ICIs-based NSCLC therapy, aiding in overcoming resistance challenges.

GSH/pH-responsive copper-based cascade nanocomplexes inducing immunogenic cell death through cuproptosis/ferroptosis/necroptosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains a formidable challenge due to high recurrence rates and limited efficacy of conventional treatments. Immunotherapy holds potential, but its effectiveness is often restricted by low patient responsiveness. This study presents a novel therapeutic strategy using GSH/pH-responsive copper-based cascade nanocomplexes to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) in OSCC. The fabricated nanocomplex, PC@B-H, leverages the acidic and reducing tumor microenvironment to release copper ions and plumbagin, triggering a cascade of cell death mechanisms including cuproptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis. This multifunctional system not only enhances oxidative stress but also depletes glutathione, promotes lipid peroxidation, and disrupts mitochondrial function, leading to robust tumor inhibition. Additionally, the induction of ICD facilitates dendritic cell maturation and cytotoxic T lymphocyte infiltration, providing durable anti-tumor immunity. The study demonstrates that PC@B-H achieves a 92.3 % tumor growth inhibition rate with minimal systemic toxicity, offering a promising avenue for enhancing the efficacy of OSCC treatment through combined cell death pathways and immune activation.

From micro to macro, nanotechnology demystifies acute pancreatitis: a new generation of treatment options emerges

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a disease characterized by an acute inflammatory response in the pancreas. This is caused by the abnormal activation of pancreatic enzymes by a variety of etiologic factors, which results in a localized inflammatory response. The symptoms of this disease include abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting and fever. These symptoms are induced by a hyperinflammatory response and oxidative stress. In recent years, research has focused on developing anti-inflammatory and antioxidative therapies for the treatment of acute pancreatitis (AP). However, there are still limitations to this approach, including poor drug stability, low bioavailability and a short half-life. The advent of nanotechnology has opened up a novel avenue for the management of acute pancreatitis (AP). Nanomaterials can serve as an efficacious vehicle for conventional pharmaceuticals, enhancing their targeting ability, improving bioavailability and prolonging their half-life. Moreover, they can also exert a direct therapeutic effect. This review begins by introducing the general situation of acute pancreatitis (AP). It then discusses the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis (AP) and the current status of treatment. Finally, it considers the literature related to the treatment of acute pancreatitis (AP) by nanomaterials. The objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive review of the existing literature on the use of nanomaterials in the treatment of acute pancreatitis (AP). In particular, the changes in inflammatory markers and therapeutic outcomes following the administration of nanomaterials are examined. This is done with the intention of offering insights that can inform subsequent research and facilitate the clinical application of nanomaterials in the management of acute pancreatitis (AP).

Nano-bio-encapsulation of phyto-vaccines: a breakthrough in targeted cancer immunotherapy

Nano bio-encapsulation of phyto-vaccines for cancer has marked a cutting-edge strategy that brings together nanotechnology with plant-derived vaccines to enhance cancer therapy. Phyto-vaccines, isolated from bioactive compounds found in plants called protein bodies, have been shown to potentially stimulate the immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells. However, challenges such as poor stability, rapid degradation, and limited bioavailability in the body have hindered their clinical application. Nano bio-encapsulation offers a solution by packaging these phyto-vaccines into nanoscale carriers such as lectins have provided ways to overcome these limitations. They protect the protein bodies from degradation by proteolytic enzymes, enhance targeted delivery to cancer cells, and enable controlled release. This approach not only improves the bio-distribution and potency of the vaccines but also minimizes side effects, making it a highly promising, sustainable, and efficient method for cancer immunotherapy. As research progresses, this technology has the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment by providing safer and more precise therapeutic options. This review focuses on the concept of nano bio-encapsulation of phyto-vaccines for cancer treatment. It explores how nanotechnology can enhance the stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery of plant-derived vaccines, addressing the limitations of traditional vaccines. The review delves into the potential of this innovative strategy to advance cancer immunotherapy, providing a comprehensive overview of current research and future directions.

Recent Progress in Nanomedicine for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Alzheimer's Diseases

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes memory loss and progressive and permanent deterioration of cognitive function. The most challenging issue in combating AD is its complicated pathogenesis, which includes the deposition of amyloid β (Aβ) plaques, intracellular hyperphosphorylated tau protein, neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), etc. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for AD, the currently developed drugs only improve cognitive ability and temporarily relieve symptoms but cannot prevent the development of AD. Moreover, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) creates a huge barrier to drug delivery in the brain. Therefore, effective diagnostic tools and treatments are urgently needed. In recent years, nanomedicine has provided opportunities to overcome the challenges and limitations associated with traditional diagnostics or treatments. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play an essential role in nanomedicine for the diagnosis and treatment of AD, acting as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability across/bypass the BBB or acting as drugs directly on AD lesions. This review categorizes different types of NPs and summarizes their applications in nanomedicine for the diagnosis and treatment of AD. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical applications and explores the latest developments and prospects of nanomedicine for AD.

Diffusion Coefficients of Coated Plasmonic Nanoparticles in Viscous Environment

The Stokes-Einstein relationship (SER) is not valid anymore in polymeric solutions for nanoparticles. It is thus important to characterize their diffusion properties to get a finer understanding of their behavior and to better tune their attributes for biomedical applications. The diffusion of gold and silver nanoparticles with citrate, hyaluronic acid, methyl-polyethylene glycol, and antibody-polyethylene glycol coatings is studied in hyaluronic-based viscous solutions. The diffusion coefficient D is estimated from the Brownian motion thanks to a cost-effective side-illumination device. It is determined that the nanoparticles (hydrodynamic radius rh: 30-135 nm) diffuse up to 4-5 times faster than expected using the SER with a macroscopic viscosity from 1 to 30 mPa·s. It is shown that the adapted Huggins equation is a good model to describe the diffusion behavior of nanoparticles using an effective viscosity ηeff given byl n ( η e f f η s ) = k ( R e f f E ) a $ln\ ( {\frac{{{{\eta }_{eff}}}}{{{{\eta }_s}}}} ) = \ k{{( {\ \frac{{{{R}_{eff}}}}{E}} )}^a}$ whereR e f f - 2 = r h - 2 + R h - 2 $R_{eff}^{ - 2} = r_h^{ - 2}\ + R_h^{ - 2}$ where E is the polymer correlation length, Rh the polymer hydrodynamic radius and ηs the solvent viscosity. The values of k and a are given and allow to obtain D with an error of 10-20%. The impact of chemical interactions on the model parameter values are also highlighted, especially due to electrostatic interactions between the polymer and the nanoparticles.

A paradigm use of monoclonal antibodies-conjugated nanoparticles in breast cancer treatment: current status and potential approaches

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are integral to cancer treatment over conventional non-specific therapy methods. This study provides a scoping review of the clinically approved mAbs, focusing on the current application of different nanocarrier technologies as drug delivery targets for mAb-conjugated nanoparticles (NPs) as potential features for breast cancer (BC) treatment. An extensive literature search was conducted between the years 2000 and 2023 using various sources of databases. The first part covered mAb classification, types, and mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and clinical applications in BC. The second part covered polymeric, lipid and inorganic-based NPs, which are a variety of mAb-conjugated NPs targeting BC. A total of 20 relevant studies were enrolled indicating there are three different types of nanoparticular systems (polymeric NPs, inorganic NPs and lipid-based NPs) that can be used for BC treatment by being loaded with various active substances and conjugated with these antibodies. While mAbs have altered the way in cancer treatment due to targeting cancer cells specifically, the delivery of mAbs with nanoparticulate systems is important in the treatment of BC, as NPs are still being investigated as distinctive and promising drug delivery methods that can be employed for effective treatment of BC.

Enhancing Vaccine Efficacy with Polyethylenimine-Modified Lovastatin-Loaded Nanoparticle Pickering Emulsion Adjuvant

Despite the potent immunoadjuvant properties of mevalonate pathway inhibitors, their application is constrained by poor solubility and instability. In this study, we developed a cationic nanoparticle-stabilized Pickering emulsion loaded with lovastatin (Lov-PPE), using polyethylenimine (PEI)-modified PLGA nanoparticles and squalene as carriers. The system was prepared and tested by evaluating the physicochemical properties and adjuvant efficacy of the Lov-PPE. Lov-PPE/O demonstrated good particle size distribution and zeta potential, with an adsorption efficiency of up to 73.07%. The immunization results showed that Lov-PPE/O significantly promoted the production of OVA-specific IgG antibodies, activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and induced a strong mixed Th1/2 immune response. Additionally, safety assessments indicated that Lov-PPE/O has good in vivo safety. This study demonstrates that the PEI-modified lovastatin PLGA nanoparticle Pickering emulsion (Lov-PPE) is an effective vaccine adjuvant capable of significantly enhancing humoral and cellular immune responses while possessing good safety, offering a new strategy for vaccine formulation development.

Computational identification of PDL1 inhibitors and their cytotoxic effects with silver and gold nanoparticles

Immunotherapy is a promising treatment for cancer that aims to boost the immune system's response to cancer cells. This can be achieved by blocking Programmed cell death protein 1/Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD1/PDL1), which activates T cells. In this work, the aim was to find high-affinity drugs against PDL1 using computational tools and conjugate nanoparticles with them. The cytotoxic activity of the nanoparticle conjugated drugs was then tested. The screening of 100,000 drugs from the ZINC database and FDA-approved drugs was done computationally. The physicochemical properties and toxicity of the drugs were analyzed using SwissADME and ProTox-II, respectively. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were synthesized using extracts of Catharanthus roseus flowers and Juglans regia shells, respectively. The characterization of AgNPs and AuNPs was performed using UV-Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Their conjugation with the drugs Irinotecan, Imatinib, and Methotrexate was also confirmed using UV-Vis, FTIR, and Dynamic light scattering (DLS). The top screened drugs were ZINC1098661 and 3 FDA-approved drugs (Irinotecan, Imatinib, and Methotrexate). Docking studies revealed that Irinotecan had the highest binding affinity towards PDL1 when conjugated with silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The Irinotecan-PDL1 complex was confirmed as the most stable through molecular dynamics simulations. The result of the methylthiazol tetrazolium (MTT) assay showed that conjugated AgNPs and AuNPs with Irinotecan had a higher toxic effect on the A549 cancer cell line than AgNPs and AuNPs conjugated with Imatinib. This study provides a promising avenue for further investigation and development of nanoparticle-drug conjugates as a potential cancer immunotherapy strategy.

Hyaluronic acid-functionalized carboxymethyl dextran-coated melatonin nanoconjugates for targeted etoposide delivery in metastatic colon cancer: Extensive in-vitro investigation in HCT116 cell lines, antimicrobial efficacy, and anti-angiogenic potential in chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay

Managing advanced colon cancer is challenging, requiring targeted therapies. This study presents a novel nanoconjugate system, HA-CMD@ETP-MLT-NCs, designed to deliver etoposide (ETP) specifically to colon cancer cells. The system consists of Hyaluronic Acid (HA)-Functionalized Carboxymethyl Dextran (CMD) coated with Melatonin (MLT). The nanoconjugates showed good stability, with a zeta potential of -29.90 mV and a particle size of 199.1 nm. They achieved an 80.3 % yield and a high drug entrapment efficiency of 93.4 %. In vitro release studies demonstrated pH-dependent drug release, with 73.4 % released at pH 5.5 (tumour-like environment) and 42.6 % at pH 7.4 (normal tissue) over 24 h. The nanoconjugates improved cellular uptake, induced apoptosis, and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HCT116 colon cancer cells. Flow cytometry showed a significant decrease in ROS levels, and lipid peroxidation inhibition increased to 56.67 %. These findings suggest that HA-CMD@ETP-MLT-NCs enhance etoposide delivery and reduce side effects. Further in vivo studies and clinical trials are needed to confirm its therapeutic potential.

Immunomodulatory nanoparticles activate cytotoxic T cells for enhancement of the effect of cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy represents a promising targeted treatment by leveraging the patient's immune system or adoptive transfer of active immune cells to selectively eliminate cancer cells. Despite notable clinical successes, conventional immunotherapies face significant challenges stemming from the poor infiltration of endogenous or adoptively transferred cytotoxic T cells in tumors, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and the immune evasion capability of cancer cells, leading to limited efficacy in many types of solid tumors. Overcoming these hurdles is essential to broaden the applicability of immunotherapies. Recent advances in nanotherapeutics have emerged as an innovative tool to overcome these challenges and enhance the therapeutic potential of tumor immunotherapy. The unique biochemical and biophysical properties of nanomaterials offer advantages in activation of immune cells in vitro for cell therapy, targeted delivery, and controlled release of immunomodulatory agents in vivo. Nanoparticles are excellent carriers for tumor associated antigens or neoantigen peptides for tumor vaccine, empowering activation of tumor specific T cell responses. By precisely delivering immunomodulatory agents to the tumor site, immunoactivating nanoparticles can promote tumor infiltration of endogenous T cells or adoptively transferred T cells into tumors, to overcoming delivery and biological barriers in the tumor microenvironment, augmenting the immune system's ability to recognize and eliminate cancer cells. This review provides an overview of the current advances in immunotherapeutic approaches utilizing nanotechnology. With a focus on discussions concerning strategies to enhance activity and efficacy of cytotoxic T cells and explore the intersection of engineering nanoparticles and immunomodulation aimed at bolstering T cell-mediated immune responses, we introduce various nanoparticle formulations designed to deliver therapeutic payloads, tumor antigens and immunomodulatory agents for T cell activation. Diverse mechanisms through which nanoparticle-based approaches influence T cell responses by improving antigen presentation, promoting immune cell trafficking, and reprogramming immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments to potentiate anti-tumor immunity are examined. Additionally, the synergistic potential of combining nanotherapeutics with existing immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and adoptive T cell therapies is explored. In conclusion, this review highlights emerging research advances on activation of cytotoxic T cells using nanoparticle agents to support the promises and potential applications of nanoparticle-based immunomodulatory agents for cancer immunotherapy.

Novel drug delivery systems in colorectal cancer: Advances and future prospects

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is an abnormal proliferation of cells within the colon and rectum, leading to the formation of polyps and disruption of mucosal functions. The disease development is influenced by a combination of factors, including inflammation, exposure to environmental mutagens, genetic alterations, and impairment in signaling pathways. Traditional treatments such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy are often used but have limitations, including poor solubility and permeability, treatment resistance, side effects, and post-surgery issues. Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) have emerged as a superior alternative, offering enhanced drug solubility, precision in targeting cancer cells, and regulated drug release. Thereby addressing the shortcomings of conventional therapies and showing promise for more effective CRC management. The present review sheds light on the pathogenesis, signaling pathways, biomarkers, conventional treatments, need for NDDS, and application of NDDS against CRC. Additionally, clinical trials, ongoing clinical trials, marketed formulations, and patents on CRC are also covered in the present review.

Targeting superficial cancers with gold nanoparticles: a review of current research

Superficial cancers typically refer to cancers confined to the surface layers of tissue. Low-targeting therapies or side effects prompt exploration of novel therapeutic approaches. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), due to their unique optical properties, serve as effective photosensitizers, enabling tumor ablation through photothermal therapy (PTT). PTT induced by AuNPs can be achieved through light sources externally applied to the skin. Near-infrared radiation is the main light candidate due to its deep tissue penetration capability. This review explores recent advancements in AuNP-based PTT for superficial cancers, specifically breast, head and neck, thyroid, bladder and prostate cancers. Additionally, challenges and future directions in utilizing AuNPs for cancer treatment are discussed, emphasizing the importance of balancing efficacy with safety in clinical applications.

Nanomaterials in Immunology: Bridging Innovative Approaches in Immune Modulation, Diagnostics, and Therapy

The intersection of immunology and nanotechnology has provided significant advancements in biomedical research and clinical applications over the years. Immunology aims to understand the immune system's defense mechanisms against pathogens. Nanotechnology has demonstrated its potential to manipulate immune responses, as nanomaterials' properties can be modified for the desired application. Research has shown that nanomaterials can be applied in diagnostics, therapy, and vaccine development. In diagnostics, nanomaterials can be used for biosensor development, accurately detecting biomarkers even at very low concentrations. Therapeutically, nanomaterials can act as efficient carriers for delivering drugs, antigens, or genetic material directly to targeted cells or tissues. This targeted delivery improves therapeutic efficacy and reduces the adverse effects on healthy cells and tissues. In vaccine development, nanoparticles can improve vaccine durability and extend immune responses by effectively delivering adjuvants and antigens to immune cells. Despite these advancements, challenges regarding the safety, biocompatibility, and scalability of nanomaterials for clinical applications are still present. This review will cover the fundamental interactions between nanomaterials and the immune system, their potential applications in immunology, and their safety and biocompatibility concerns.

In Situ Gelation Strategy for Efficient Drug Delivery in a Gastrointestinal System

Developing a microenvironment-responsive drug delivery system (DDS) for the gastrointestinal system is of great interest to enhance drug efficiency and minimize side effects. Unfortunately, the rapid-flowing digestive juice in the gastrointestinal tract and the continuous contraction and peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract muscle accelerate the elimination of drug carriers. In this study, a boric hydroxyl-modified mesoporous Mg(OH)2 drug carrier is prepared to prolong the drug retention time. Results show that the newly designed DDS presents high biocompatibility and can immediately turn the free polyhydric alcohol molecules into a gelation form. The in situ-formed gelation network presents high viscosity and can prevent the drug carriers from being washed away by the digestive juice in the gastrointestinal tract.

Cancer immunotherapy and its facilitation by nanomedicine

Cancer immunotherapy has sparked a wave of cancer research, driven by recent successful proof-of-concept clinical trials. However, barriers are emerging during its rapid development, including broad adverse effects, a lack of reliable biomarkers, tumor relapses, and drug resistance. Integration of nanomedicine may ameliorate current cancer immunotherapy. Ultra-large surface-to-volume ratio, extremely small size, and easy modification surface of nanoparticles enable them to selectively detect cells and kill cancer cells in vivo. Exciting synergistic applications of the two approaches have emerged in treating various cancers at the intersection of cancer immunotherapy and cancer nanomedicine, indicating the potential that the combination of these two therapeutic modalities can lead to new paradigms in the treatment of cancer. This review discusses the status of current immunotherapy and explores the possible opportunities that the nanomedicine platform can make cancer immunotherapy more powerful and precise by synergizing the two approaches.

Harnessing and Mimicking Bacterial Features to Combat Cancer: From Living Entities to Artificial Mimicking Systems

Bacterial-derived micro-/nanomedicine has garnered considerable attention in anticancer therapy, owing to the unique natural features of bacteria, including specific targeting ability, immunogenic benefits, physicochemical modifiability, and biotechnological editability. Besides, bacterial components have also been explored as promising drug delivery vehicles. Harnessing these bacterial features, cutting-edge physicochemical and biotechnologies have been applied to attenuated tumor-targeting bacteria with unique properties or functions for potent and effective cancer treatment, including strategies of gene-editing and genetic circuits. Further, the advent of bacteria-inspired micro-/nanorobots and mimicking artificial systems has furnished fresh perspectives for formulating strategies for developing highly efficient drug delivery systems. Focusing on the unique natural features and advantages of bacteria, this review delves into advances in bacteria-derived drug delivery systems for anticancer treatment in recent years, which has experienced a process from living entities to artificial mimicking systems. Meanwhile, a summary of relative clinical trials is provided and primary challenges impeding their clinical application are discussed. Furthermore, future directions are suggested for bacteria-derived systems to combat cancer.

Biomedical application of microalgal-biomaterials hybrid system

Microalgae are a group of microorganisms containing chlorophyll A, which are highly photosynthetic and rich in nutrients. And they can produce multiple bioactive substances (peptides, proteins, polysaccharides, and fatty acids) for biomedical applications. Despite the unique advantages of microalgae-based biotherapy, the insufficient treatment efficiency limits its further application. With the development of nanotechnology, the combination of microalgae and biomaterials can improve therapeutic efficacies, which has attracted increasing attention. In this microalgal-biomaterials hybrid system, biomaterials with excellent optical and magnetic properties play an important role in biological therapy. Microalgae, as a natural vehicle, can increase oxygen content and alleviate hypoxia in diseased areas, further enhancing therapeutic effects. In this review, the synergistic therapeutic effects of microalgal-biomaterials hybrid system in different diseases (cancer, myocardial infarction, ischemia stroke, chronic infection, and intestinal diseases) are comprehensively summarized.

Natural Killer-Based Therapy: A Prospective Thought for Cancer Treatment Related to Diversified Drug Delivery Pathways

Immunotherapy has been a research hotspot due to its low side effects, long-lasting efficacy, and wide anti-tumor spectrum. Recently, NK cell-based immunotherapy has gained broad attention for its unique immunological character of tumor identification and eradication and low risk of graft-versus-host disease and cytokine storm. With the cooperation of a drug delivery system (DDS), NK cells activate tumoricidal activity by adjusting the balance of the activating and inhibitory signals on their surface after drug-loaded DDS administration. Moreover, NK cells or NK-derived exosomes can also be applied as drug carriers for distinct modification to promote NK activation and exert anti-tumor effects. In this review, we first introduce the source and classification of NK cells and describe the common activating and inhibitory receptors on their surface. Then, we summarize the strategies for activating NK cells in vivo through various DDSs. Finally, the application prospects of NK cells in tumor immunotherapy are also discussed.

The recent advancements in protein nanoparticles for immunotherapy

In recent years, the advancement of nanoparticle-based immunotherapy has introduced an innovative strategy for combatting diseases. Compared with other types of nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles have obtained substantial attention owing to their remarkable biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of modification, and finely designed spatial structures. Nature provides several protein nanoparticle platforms, including viral capsids, ferritin, and albumin, which hold significant potential for disease treatment. These naturally occurring protein nanoparticles not only serve as effective drug delivery platforms but also augment antigen delivery and targeting capabilities through techniques like genetic modification and covalent conjugation. Motivated by nature's originality and driven by progress in computational methodologies, scientists have crafted numerous protein nanoparticles with intricate assembly structures, showing significant potential in the development of multivalent vaccines. Consequently, both naturally occurring and de novo designed protein nanoparticles are anticipated to enhance the effectiveness of immunotherapy. This review consolidates the advancements in protein nanoparticles for immunotherapy across diseases including cancer and other diseases like influenza, pneumonia, and hepatitis.

Vesicular approach of cubosomes, its components, preparation techniques, evaluation and their appraisal for targeting cancer cells

Cancer has been characterized by abnormal and uncontrolled proliferation of cells. Majority of drugs given through chemotherapy produce unwanted and adverse effects of chemotherapeutic agents to the other healthy cells and tissues of body. Various nanocarriers have now been considered for treatment of cancer. Among various nanocarriers, cubosomes are the nano sized dispersions that have drawn interest of researchers recently. Cubosomes are defined as dispersions of colloidal nature containing cubic crystalline liquid formations in aqueous medium in presence of suitable surfactant molecules. The unique capacity to encapsulate lipophilic, hydrophilic, and amphiphilic compounds inside their structure distinguishes them among others. Top- down method and hydrotrope method are most often employed methods for cubosomes preparation. Cubosomes can be characterized by Polarized light microscopy Photon correlation spectroscopy X-ray scattering (SAXS), Transmission electron microscopy and various stability studies. Cubic lipid nanoparticles have a very stable cubic structure that enables slower dissociation rate, increased retention and site-specific delivery of drugs. Cubosomes containing extracts of cornelian cherry for boosting anti-cancerous effects in cancer of colorectal cells by preventing against GIT destruction. When applied for skin cancer, cubosomes have shown to be having enhanced permeation of the drug. In liver cancer, increased bioavailability of drug was observed via cubosomes. This current review elaborates the advancement of cubosomes and their effective role in the treatment of cancer. This review aims to describe vesicular approach of cubosomes, its composition and method of preparation, characterization tests as well as elaborates various applications of cubosomes in cancer.

Immunomodulatory and immune-toxicological role of nanoparticles: Potential therapeutic applications

Nowadays, Nanoparticle-based immunotherapeutic research has invoked global interest due to their unique properties. The immune system is a shielding structure that defends living things from external threats. Before the use of any materials in drug design, it is essential to study the immunological response to avoid triggering undesirable immune responses in the body. This review tries to summarize the properties, various applications, and immunotherapeutic aspects of NP-induced immunomodulation relating to therapeutic development and toxicity in human health. The role of NPs in the immune system and their modulatory functions, resulting in immunosuppression or immunostimulation, exerts benefits or dangers depending on their compositions, sizes, surface chemistry, and so forth. After NPs enter into the body, they can interact with body fluid exposing, them to different body proteins to form protein corona particles and other bio-molecules (DNA, RNA, sugars, etc.), which may alter their bioactivity. Phagocytes are the first immune cells that can interact with foreign materials including nanoparticles. Immunostimulation and immunosuppression operate in two distinct manners. Overall, functionalized nanocarriers optimized various therapeutic implications by stimulating the host immune system and regulating the tranquility of the host immune system. Among others, toxicity and bio-clearance of nanomaterials are always prime concerns at the preclinical and clinical stages before final approval. The interaction of nanoparticles with immune cells causes direct cell damage via apoptosis and necroses as well as immune signaling pathways also become influenced.

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles as a biomimetic drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, a burgeoning modality for cancer treatment, operates by activating the autoimmune system to impede the growth of malignant cells. Although numerous immunotherapy strategies have been employed in clinical cancer therapy, the resistance of cancer cells to immunotherapeutic medications and other apprehensions impede the attainment of sustained advantages for most patients. Recent advancements in nanotechnology for drug delivery hold promise in augmenting the efficacy of immunotherapy. However, the efficacy is currently constrained by the inadequate specificity of delivery, low rate of response, and the intricate immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this context, the investigation of cell membrane coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) has revealed their ability to perform targeted delivery, immune evasion, controlled release, and immunomodulation. By combining the advantageous features of natural cell membranes and nanoparticles, CMNPs have demonstrated their unique potential in the realm of cancer immunotherapy. This review aims to emphasize recent research progress and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of CMNPs as an innovative drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of the current immunotherapeutic strategies involving different cell membrane types of CMNPs, with the intention of further exploration and optimization.

Nanoparticles in tumor microenvironment remodeling and cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy and vaccine development have significantly improved the fight against cancers. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly in the clinical delivery of immunomodulatory compounds. The tumor microenvironment (TME), comprising macrophages, fibroblasts, and immune cells, plays a crucial role in immune response modulation. Nanoparticles, engineered to reshape the TME, have shown promising results in enhancing immunotherapy by facilitating targeted delivery and immune modulation. These nanoparticles can suppress fibroblast activation, promote M1 macrophage polarization, aid dendritic cell maturation, and encourage T cell infiltration. Biomimetic nanoparticles further enhance immunotherapy by increasing the internalization of immunomodulatory agents in immune cells such as dendritic cells. Moreover, exosomes, whether naturally secreted by cells in the body or bioengineered, have been explored to regulate the TME and immune-related cells to affect cancer immunotherapy. Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, activated by pH, redox, and light conditions, exhibit the potential to accelerate immunotherapy. The co-application of nanoparticles with immune checkpoint inhibitors is an emerging strategy to boost anti-tumor immunity. With their ability to induce long-term immunity, nanoarchitectures are promising structures in vaccine development. This review underscores the critical role of nanoparticles in overcoming current challenges and driving the advancement of cancer immunotherapy and TME modification.

Investigation of antimicrobial and anti-cancer activity of thermally sensitive SnO2 nanostructures with green-synthesized cauliflower morphology at ambient weather conditions

A tin oxide (SnO2) nanostructure was prepared using Matricaria recutita leaf extract to investigate its anticancer activity against SK-MEL-28 cells. The tetragonal crystal structure of tin oxide nanoparticles with an average crystal size of 27 nm was confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The tetragonal crystal structure of the tin oxide nanoparticles, with an average crystallite size of 27 nm, was confirmed by XRD an absorbance peak at 365 nm was identified by UV-visible spectroscopy analysis as belonging to the bio-mediated synthesis of SnO2 nanoparticles. The SnO2 NPs are capped and stabilized with diverse functional groups derived from bioactive molecules, including aldehydes, benzene rings, amines, alcohols, and carbonyl stretch protein molecules. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis validated the presence of these capping and stabilizing chemical bonds. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies revealed the cauliflower-shaped morphology of the SnO2 nanoparticles with an average particle size of 28 nm. The antimicrobial activity of both prepared and encapsulated samples confirmed their biological activities. Furthermore, both prepared and encapsulated tin oxide samples exhibited excellent anticancer activity against SK-MEL-28 human cancer cells. The present study introduces a reliable and uncomplicated approach to produce SnO2 nanoparticles and demonstrates their effectiveness in various applications, including cancer therapy, drug administration, and disinfectant.

Immune Features of Tumor Microenvironment: A Genetic Spotlight

A tumor represents a highly intricate tissue entity, characterized by an exceptionally complex microenvironment that starkly contrasts with the typical physiological surroundings of healthy tissues. Within this tumor microenvironment (TME), every component and factor assume paramount importance in the progression of malignancy and exerts a pivotal influence on a patient's clinical outcome. One of the remarkable aspects of the TME is its remarkable heterogeneity, not only across different types of cancers but even within the same histological category of tumors. In-depth research has illuminated the intricate interplay between specific immune cells and molecules and the dynamic characteristics of the TME. Recent investigations have yielded compelling evidence that several mutations harbored by tumor cells possess the capacity to instigate substantial alterations in the TME. These mutations, often acting as drivers of tumorigenesis, can orchestrate a cascade of events that remodel the TME, thereby influencing crucial aspects of cancer behavior, including its invasiveness, immune evasion, and response to therapies. It is within this nuanced context that the present study endeavors to provide a concise yet comprehensive summary of how specific mutations, within the genetic landscape of cancer cells, can instigate profound changes in TME features. By elucidating the intricate relationship between genetic mutations and the TME, this research aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of cancer biology. Ultimately, the knowledge gained from this study holds the potential to inform the development of more targeted and effective treatments, thereby offering new hope to patients grappling with the complexities of cancer.

Moving beyond traditional therapies: the role of nanomedicines in lung cancer

Amidst a global rise in lung cancer occurrences, conventional therapies continue to pose substantial side effects and possess notable toxicities while lacking specificity. Counteracting this, the incorporation of nanomedicines can notably enhance drug delivery at tumor sites, extend a drug's half-life and mitigate inadvertent toxic and adverse impacts on healthy tissues, substantially influencing lung cancer's early detection and targeted therapy. Numerous studies signal that while the nano-characteristics of lung cancer nanomedicines play a pivotal role, further interplay with immune, photothermal, and genetic factors exist. This review posits that the progression towards multimodal combination therapies could potentially establish an efficacious platform for multimodal targeted lung cancer treatments. Current nanomedicines split into active and passive targeting. Active therapies focus on a single target, often with unsatisfactory results. Yet, developing combination systems targeting multiple sites could chart new paths in lung cancer therapy. Conversely, low drug delivery rates limit passive therapies. Utilizing the EPR effect to bind specific ligands on nanoparticles to tumor cell receptors might create a new regime combining active-passive targeting, potentially elevating the nanomedicines' concentration at target sites. This review collates recent advancements through the lens of nanomedicine's attributes for lung cancer therapeutics, the novel carrier classifications, targeted therapeutic modalities and their mechanisms, proposing that the emergence of multi-target nanocomposite therapeutics, combined active-passive targeting therapies and multimodal combined treatments will pioneer novel approaches and tools for future lung cancer clinical therapies.

Improving the Efficacy of Common Cancer Treatments via Targeted Therapeutics towards the Tumour and Its Microenvironment

Cancer is defined as the uncontrolled proliferation of heterogeneous cell cultures in the body that develop abnormalities and mutations, leading to their resistance to many forms of treatment. Left untreated, these abnormal cell growths can lead to detrimental and even fatal complications for patients. Radiation therapy is involved in around 50% of cancer treatment workflows; however, it presents significant recurrence rates and normal tissue toxicity, given the inevitable deposition of the dose to the surrounding healthy tissue. Chemotherapy is another treatment modality with excessive normal tissue toxicity that significantly affects patients' quality of life. To improve the therapeutic efficacy of radiotherapy and chemotherapy, multiple conjunctive modalities have been proposed, which include the targeting of components of the tumour microenvironment inhibiting tumour spread and anti-therapeutic pathways, increasing the oxygen content within the tumour to revert the hypoxic nature of the malignancy, improving the local dose deposition with metal nanoparticles, and the restriction of the cell cycle within radiosensitive phases. The tumour microenvironment is largely responsible for inhibiting nanoparticle capture within the tumour itself and improving resistance to various forms of cancer therapy. In this review, we discuss the current literature surrounding the administration of molecular and nanoparticle therapeutics, their pharmacokinetics, and contrasting mechanisms of action. The review aims to demonstrate the advancements in the field of conjugated nanomaterials and radiotherapeutics targeting, inhibiting, or bypassing the tumour microenvironment to promote further research that can improve treatment outcomes and toxicity rates.

Nanoparticle-based immunoengineering strategies for enhancing cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is a groundbreaking strategy that has revolutionized the field of oncology compared to other therapeutic strategies, such as surgery, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy. However, cancer complexity, tumor heterogeneity, and immune escape have become the main hurdles to the clinical application of immunotherapy. Moreover, conventional immunotherapies cause many harmful side effects owing to hyperreactivity in patients, long treatment durations and expensive cost. Nanotechnology is considered a transformative approach that enhances the potency of immunotherapy by capitalizing on the superior physicochemical properties of nanocarriers, creating highly targeted tissue delivery systems. These advantageous features include a substantial specific surface area, which enhances the interaction with the immune system. In addition, the capability to finely modify surface chemistry enables the achievement of controlled and sustained release properties. These advances have significantly increased the potential of immunotherapy, making it more powerful than ever before. In this review, we introduce recent nanocarriers for application in cancer immunotherapy based on strategies that target different main immune cells, including T cells, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and tumor-associated macrophages. We also provide an overview of the role and significance of nanotechnology in cancer immunotherapy.

Curcumin, its derivatives, and their nanoformulations: Revolutionizing cancer treatment

Curcumin is a natural compound derived from turmeric and can target malignant tumor molecules involved in cancer propagation. It has potent antioxidant activity, but its effectiveness is limited due to poor absorption and rapid elimination from the body. Various curcumin derivatives have also shown anticancer potential in in-vitro and in-vivo models. Curcumin can target multiple signaling pathways involved in cancer development/progression or induce cancer cell death through apoptosis. In addition, curcumin and its derivatives could also enhance the effectiveness of conventional chemotherapy, radiation therapy and reduce their associated side effects. Lately, nanoparticle-based delivery systems are being developed/explored to overcome the challenges associated with curcumin's delivery, increasing its overall efficacy. The use of an imaging system to track these formulations could also give beneficial information about the bioavailability and distribution of the nano-curcumin complex. In conclusion, curcumin holds significant promise in the fight against cancer, especially in its nanoform, and could provide precise delivery to cancer cells without affecting normal healthy cells.

Developments in Emerging Topical Drug Delivery Systems for Ocular Disorders

According to the current information, using nano gels in the eyes have therapeutic benefits. Industry growth in the pharmaceutical and healthcare sectors has been filled by nanotechnology. Traditional ocular preparations have a short retention duration and restricted drug bioavailability because of the eye's architectural and physiological barriers, a big issue for physicians, patients, and chemists. In contrast, nano gels can encapsulate drugs within threedimensional cross-linked polymeric networks. Because of their distinctive structural designs and preparation methods, they can deliver loaded medications in a controlled and sustained manner, enhancing patient compliance and therapeutic efficacy. Due to their excellent drugloading capacity and biocompatibility, nano-gels outperform other nano-carriers. This study focuses on using nano gels to treat eye diseases and provides a brief overview of their creation and response to stimuli. Our understanding of topical drug administration will be advanced using nano gel developments to treat common ocular diseases such as glaucoma, cataracts, dry eye syndrome, bacterial keratitis, and linked medication-loaded contact lenses and natural active ingredients.

Microenvironment of pancreatic inflammation: calling for nanotechnology for diagnosis and treatment

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a common and life-threatening digestive disorder. However, its diagnosis and treatment are still impeded by our limited understanding of its etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical manifestations, as well as by the available detection methods. Fortunately, the progress of microenvironment-targeted nanoplatforms has shown their remarkable potential to change the status quo. The pancreatic inflammatory microenvironment is typically characterized by low pH, abundant reactive oxygen species (ROS) and enzymes, overproduction of inflammatory cells, and hypoxia, which exacerbate the pathological development of AP but also provide potential targeting sites for nanoagents to achieve early diagnosis and treatment. This review elaborates the various potential targets of the inflammatory microenvironment of AP and summarizes in detail the prospects for the development and application of functional nanomaterials for specific targets. Additionally, it presents the challenges and future trends to develop multifunctional targeted nanomaterials for the early diagnosis and effective treatment of AP, providing a valuable reference for future research.

Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies to combat the recurrence and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma after thermal ablation

Thermal ablation (TA), including radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and microwave ablation (MWA), has become the main treatment for early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) due to advantages such as safety and minimal invasiveness. However, HCC is prone to local recurrence, with more aggressive malignancies after TA closely related to TA-induced changes in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and remodeling of the tumor microenvironment (TME). According to many studies, various components of the TME undergo complex changes after TA, such as the recruitment of innate and adaptive immune cells, the release of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) and various cytokines, the formation of a hypoxic microenvironment, and tumor angiogenesis. Changes in the TME after TA can partly enhance the anti-tumor immune response; however, this response is weak to kill the tumor completely. Certain components of the TME can induce an immunosuppressive microenvironment through complex interactions, leading to tumor recurrence and progression. How the TME is remodeled after TA and the mechanism by which the TME promotes HCC recurrence and progression are unclear. Thus, in this review, we focused on these issues to highlight potentially effective strategies for reducing and preventing the recurrence and progression of HCC after TA.

Peptide-Appended Nanosonosensitizers Targeting Tumor Glycolysis for Synergistic Sonodynamic-Immunometabolic Therapy of Spinal-Metastasized Tumors

Despite recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy, challenges have yet to be surmounted to achieve two major goals of magnifying antitumor immunity and remodeling the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Here, a nanosystem (ODM-R) that integrates oxygen-deficient molybdenum oxide (ODM) nanosonosensitizers and R7 peptides with tumor metabolism regulation effects is designed and fabricated for synergistic sonodynamic-immunometabolic therapy of spinal-metastasized tumors. The ODM generates reactive oxygen species upon ultrasound irradiation to implement sonodynamic therapy (SDT), inducing cancer cell apoptosis and immunogenic cell death. The R7 attached on ODM markedly inhibits the uptake of glucose and excretion of lactic acid in cancer cells by perturbing the glycolysis process. The combination of SDT and tumor glycolysis obstruction by ODM-R guarantees satisfactory efficacy in synergizing with PD-L1 antibody to eradicate spinal-metastasized tumors, achieving concurrent sonodynamic-triggered immune activation and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment remodeling. This work provides a proof-of-concept of nanosonosensitizers for boosting cancer immunotherapy by SDT and tumor metabolic regulation.

Promotion of ICD via Nanotechnology

Immunotherapy represents the most promising treatment strategy for cancer, but suffers from compromised therapeutic efficiency due to low immune activity of tumor cells and an immunosuppressive microenvironment, which significantly hampers the clinical translations of this treatment strategy. To promote immunotherapy with desired therapeutic efficiency, immunogenic cell death (ICD), a particular type of death capable of reshaping body's antitumor immune activity, has drawn considerable attention due to the potential to stimulate a potent immune response. Still, the potential of ICD effect remains unsatisfactory because of the intricate tumor microenvironment and multiple drawbacks of the used inducing agents. ICD has been thoroughly reviewed so far with a general classification of ICD as a kind of immunotherapy strategy and repeated discussion of the related mechanism. However, there are no published reviews, to the authors' knowledge, providing a systematic summarization on the enhancement of ICD via nanotechnology. For this purpose, this review first discusses the four stages of ICD according to the development mechanisms, followed by a comprehensive description on the use of nanotechnology to enhance ICD in the corresponding four stages. The challenges of ICD inducers and possible solutions are finally summarized for future ICD-based enhanced immunotherapy.

Identification of MDM2 as a prognostic and immunotherapeutic biomarker in a comprehensive pan-cancer analysis: A promising target for breast cancer, bladder cancer and ovarian cancer immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

The murine double minute 2 (MDM2) gene is a crucial factor in the development and progression of various cancer types. Multiple rigorous scientific studies have consistently shown its involvement in tumorigenesis and cancer progression in a wide range of cancer types. However, a comprehensive analysis of the role of MDM2 in human cancer has yet to be conducted.

METHODS

We used various databases, including TIMER2.0, TCGA, GTEx and STRING, to analyze MDM2 expression and its correlation with clinical outcomes, interacting genes and immune cell infiltration. We also investigated the association of MDM2 with immune checkpoints and performed gene enrichment analysis using DAVID tools.

RESULTS

The pan-cancer MDM2 analysis found that MDM2 expression and mutation status were observably different in 25 types of cancer tissue compared with healthy tissues, and prognosis analysis showed that there was a significant correlation between MDM2 expression and patient prognosis. Furthermore, correlation analysis showed that MDM2 expression was correlated with tumor mutational burden, microsatellite instability and drug sensitivity in certain cancer types. We found that there was an association between MDM2 expression and immune cell infiltration across cancer types, and MDM2 inhibitors might enhance the effect of immunotherapy on breast cancer, bladder cancer and ovarian cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

The first systematic pan-cancer analysis of MDM2 was conducted, and it demonstrated that MDM2 was a reliable prognostic biomarker and was closely related to cancer immunity, providing a potential immunotherapeutic target for breast cancer, bladder cancer and ovarian cancer.

AXL in cancer: a modulator of drug resistance and therapeutic target

AXL is a member of the TAM (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) receptor tyrosine kinases family (RTKs), and its abnormal expression has been linked to clinicopathological features and poor prognosis of cancer patients. There is mounting evidence supporting AXL's role in the occurrence and progression of cancer, as well as drug resistance and treatment tolerance. Recent studies revealed that reducing AXL expression can weaken cancer cells' drug resistance, indicating that AXL may be a promising target for anti-cancer drug treatment. This review aims to summarize the AXL's structure, the mechanisms regulating and activating it, and its expression pattern, especially in drug-resistant cancers. Additionally, we will discuss the diverse functions of AXL in mediating cancer drug resistance and the potential of AXL inhibitors in cancer treatment.

Challenges and advances for glioma therapy based on inorganic nanoparticles

Glioma is one of the most serious central nervous system diseases, with high mortality and poor prognosis. Despite the continuous development of existing treatment methods, the median survival time of glioma patients is still only 15 months. The main treatment difficulties are the invasive growth of glioma and the obstruction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to drugs. With rapid advancements in nanotechnology, inorganic nanoparticles (INPs) have shown favourable application prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of glioma. Due to their extraordinary intrinsic features, INPs can be easily fabricated, while doping with other elements and surface modification by biological ligands can be used to enhance BBB penetration, targeted delivery and biocompatibility. Guided glioma theranostics with INPs can improve and enhance the efficacy of traditional methods such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy and gene therapy. New strategies, such as immunotherapy, photothermal and photodynamic therapy, magnetic hyperthermia therapy, and multifunctional inorganic nanoplatforms, have also been facilitated by INPs. This review emphasizes the current state of research and clinical applications of INPs, including glioma targeting and BBB penetration enhancement methods, in vivo and in vitro biocompatibility, and diagnostic and treatment strategies. As such, it provides insights for the development of novel glioma treatment strategies.

Potential of green-synthesized ZnO NPs against human ovarian teratocarcinoma: an in vitro study

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer leads to devastating outcomes, and its treatment is highly challenging. At present, there is a lack of clinical symptoms, well-known sensitivity biomarkers, and patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Currently, available therapeutics against ovarian cancer are inefficient, costly, and associated with severe side effects. The present study evaluated the anticancer potential of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) that were successfully biosynthesized in an ecofriendly mode using pumpkin seed extracts.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The anticancer potential of the biosynthesized ZnO NPs was assessed using an in vitro human ovarian teratocarcinoma cell line (PA-1) by well-known assays such as MTT assay, morphological alterations, induction of apoptosis, measurement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and inhibition of cell adhesion/migration. The biogenic ZnO NPs exerted a high level of cytotoxicity against PA-1 cells. Furthermore, the ZnO NPs inhibited cellular adhesion and migration but induced ROS production and cell death through programmed cell death.

CONCLUSION

The aforementioned anticancer properties highlight the therapeutic utility of ZnO NPs in ovarian cancer treatment. However, further research is recommended to envisage their mechanism of action in different cancer models and validation in a suitable in vivo system.

Advances in Nanogels for Topical Drug Delivery in Ocular Diseases

Nanotechnology has accelerated the development of the pharmaceutical and medical technology fields, and nanogels for ocular applications have proven to be a promising therapeutic strategy. Traditional ocular preparations are restricted by the anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye, resulting in a short retention time and low drug bioavailability, which is a significant challenge for physicians, patients, and pharmacists. Nanogels, however, have the ability to encapsulate drugs within three-dimensional crosslinked polymeric networks and, through specific structural designs and distinct methods of preparation, achieve the controlled and sustained delivery of loaded drugs, increasing patient compliance and therapeutic efficiency. In addition, nanogels have higher drug-loading capacity and biocompatibility than other nanocarriers. In this review, the main focus is on the applications of nanogels for ocular diseases, whose preparations and stimuli-responsive behaviors are briefly described. The current comprehension of topical drug delivery will be improved by focusing on the advances of nanogels in typical ocular diseases, including glaucoma, cataracts, dry eye syndrome, and bacterial keratitis, as well as related drug-loaded contact lenses and natural active substances.

Emerging Trends in Nano-Driven Immunotherapy for Treatment of Cancer

Despite advancements in the development of anticancer medications and therapies, cancer still has the greatest fatality rate due to a dismal prognosis. Traditional cancer therapies include chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted therapy. The conventional treatments have a number of shortcomings, such as a lack of selectivity, non-specific cytotoxicity, suboptimal drug delivery to tumour locations, and multi-drug resistance, which results in a less potent/ineffective therapeutic outcome. Cancer immunotherapy is an emerging and promising strategy to elicit a pronounced immune response against cancer. Immunotherapy stimulates the immune system with cancer-specific antigens or immune checkpoint inhibitors to overcome the immune suppressive tumour microenvironment and kill the cancer cells. However, delivery of the antigen or immune checkpoint inhibitors and activation of the immune response need to circumvent the issues pertaining to short lifetimes and effect times, as well as adverse effects associated with off-targeting, suboptimal, or hyperactivation of the immune system. Additional challenges posed by the tumour suppressive microenvironment are less tumour immunogenicity and the inhibition of effector T cells. The evolution of nanotechnology in recent years has paved the way for improving treatment efficacy by facilitating site-specific and sustained delivery of the therapeutic moiety to elicit a robust immune response. The amenability of nanoparticles towards surface functionalization and tuneable physicochemical properties, size, shape, and surfaces charge have been successfully harnessed for immunotherapy, as well as combination therapy, against cancer. In this review, we have summarized the recent advancements made in choosing different nanomaterial combinations and their modifications made to enable their interaction with different molecular and cellular targets for efficient immunotherapy. This review also highlights recent trends in immunotherapy strategies to be used independently, as well as in combination, for the destruction of cancer cells, as well as prevent metastasis and recurrence.

Nanomedicine as potential cancer therapy via targeting dysregulated transcription factors

Cancer as a disease possess quite complicated pathophysiological implications and is among the prominent causes of morbidity and mortality on global scales. Anti-cancer chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy are some of the present-day conventional treatment options. However, these therapeutic paradigms own several retreats, including lack of specificity, non-targeted toxicological implications, inefficient drug delivery to targeted cells, and emergence of cancer resistance, ultimately causing ineffective cancer management. Owing to the advanced and better biophysical characteristic features and potentiality for the tailoring and customizations and in several fashions, nanotechnology can entirely transubstantiate the cancer identification and its managements. Additionally, nanotechnology also renders several answers to present-day mainstream limitations springing-up in anti-cancer therapeutics. Nanocarriers, owing to their outstanding physicochemical features including but not limited to their particle size, surface morphological features viz. shape etc., have been employed in nanomedicinal platforms for targeting various transcription factors leading to worthy pharmacological outcomes. This transcription targeting activates the wide array of cellular and molecular events like antioxidant enzyme-induction, apoptotic cell death, cell-cycle arrest etc. These outcomes are obtained after the activation or inactivation of several transcription factors and cellular pathways. Further, nanoformulations have been precisely calibrated and functionalized with peculiar targeting groups for improving their efficiency to deliver the drug-payload to specified and targeted cancerous cells and tissues. This review undertakes an extensive, across-the-board and all-inclusive approach consisting of various studies encompassing different types of tailored and customized nanoformulations and nanomaterials designed for targeting the transcription factors implicated in the process of carcinogenesis, tumor-maturation, growth and metastasis. Various transcription factors viz. nuclear factor kappa (NF-κB), signal transducer and activators of transcription (STAT), Cmyc and Twist-related protein 1 (TWIST1) along with several types of nanoparticles targeting these transcription factors have been summarized here. A section has also been dedicated to the different types of nanoparticles targeting the hypoxia inducing factors. Efforts have been made to summarize several other transcription factors implicated in various stages of cancer development, growth, progression and invasion, and their targeting with different kinds of nanomedicinal agents.

Nanomaterials-Based Novel Immune Strategies in Clinical Translation for Cancer Therapy

Immunotherapy shows a lot of promise for addressing the problems with traditional cancer treatments. Researchers and clinicians are working to create innovative immunological techniques for cancer detection and treatment that are more selective and have lower toxicity. An emerging field in cancer therapy, immunomodulation offers patients an alternate approach to treating cancer. These therapies use the host's natural defensive systems to identify and remove malignant cells in a targeted manner. Cancer treatment is now undergoing somewhat of a revolution due to recent developments in nanotechnology. Diverse nanomaterials (NMs) have been employed to overcome the limits of conventional anti-cancer treatments such as cytotoxic, surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Aside from that, NMs could interact with live cells and influence immune responses. In contrast, unexpected adverse effects such as necrosis, hypersensitivity, and inflammation might result from the immune system (IS)'s interaction with NMs. Therefore, to ensure the efficacy of immunomodulatory nanomaterials, it is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the intricate interplay that exists between the IS and NMs. This review intends to present an overview of the current achievements, challenges, and improvements in using immunomodulatory nanomaterials (iNMs) for cancer therapy, with an emphasis on elucidating the mechanisms involved in the interaction between NMs and the immune system of the host.

Nanomedicine-based immunotherapy for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease caused by the deposition of amyloid β (Aβ) fibrils forming extracellular plaques and the development of neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) of intracellular hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Currently, the AD treatments focus on improving cognitive and behavioral symptoms and have limited success. It is imperative to develop novel treatment approaches that can control/inhibit AD progression, especially in the elderly population. Immunotherapy provides a promising and safe treatment option for AD by boosting the patient's immune system. The minimum immune surveillance in the immune-privileged brain, however, makes immunotherapy for AD a challenging endeavor. Therefore, the success of AD immunotherapy depends mainly on the strategy by which therapeutics is delivered to the brain rather than its efficacy. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major obstacle to therapeutic delivery into the brain microenvironment. Various nano-formulations have been exploited to improve the efficacy of AD immunotherapy. In this review, the applications of different types of nano-formulations in augmenting AD immunotherapy have been discussed.

Multifunctional nanomedicine strategies to manage brain diseases

Brain diseases represent a substantial social and economic burden, currently affecting one in six individuals worldwide. Brain research has been focus of great attention in order to unravel the pathogenesis and complexity of brain diseases at the cellular, molecular, and microenvironmental levels. Due to the intrinsic nature of the brain, the presence of the highly restrictive blood-brain barrier (BBB), and the pathophysiology of most diseases, therapies can hardly be considered successful purely by the administration of one drug to a patient. Apart from improving pharmacokinetic parameters, tailoring biodistribution, and reducing the number of side effects, nanomedicines are able to actively co-target the therapeutics to the brain parenchyma and brain lesions, as well as to achieve the delivery of multiple cargos with therapeutic, diagnostic, and theranostic properties. Among other multivalent effects that can be personalized according to the disease needs, this represents a promising class of novel nanosystems, termed multifunctional nanomedicines. Herein, we review the principal mechanisms of therapeutic resistance of the most prevalent brain diseases, how to overcome this therapeutic resistance through the use of multifunctional nanomedicines that tackle multiple fronts of the disease microenvironment, and the promising therapeutic responses achieved by some of the most cutting-edge multifunctional nanomedicines reported in literature.

Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Immunotherapy of Cancers through Macrophages and Magnetic Hyperthermia

Cancer immunotherapy has tremendous promise, but it has yet to be clinically applied in a wider variety of tumor situations. Many therapeutic combinations are envisaged to improve their effectiveness. In this way, strategies capable of inducing immunogenic cell death (e.g., doxorubicin, radiotherapy, hyperthermia) and the reprogramming of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) (e.g., M2-to-M1-like macrophages repolarization of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs)) are particularly appealing to enhance the efficacy of approved immunotherapies (e.g., immune checkpoint inhibitors, ICIs). Due to their modular construction and versatility, iron oxide-based nanomedicines such as superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) can combine these different approaches in a single agent. SPIONs have already shown their safety and biocompatibility and possess both drug-delivery (e.g., chemotherapy, ICIs) and magnetic capabilities (e.g., magnetic hyperthermia (MHT), magnetic resonance imaging). In this review, we will discuss the multiple applications of SPIONs in cancer immunotherapy, focusing on their theranostic properties to target TAMs and to generate MHT. The first section of this review will briefly describe immune targets for NPs. The following sections will deal with the overall properties of SPIONs (including MHT). The last section is dedicated to the SPION-induced immune response through its effects on TAMs and MHT.