1
|
Sallinger M, Grabmayr H, Humer C, Bonhenry D, Romanin C, Schindl R, Derler I. Activation mechanisms and structural dynamics of STIM proteins. J Physiol 2024; 602:1475-1507. [PMID: 36651592 DOI: 10.1113/jp283828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The family of stromal interaction molecules (STIM) includes two widely expressed single-pass endoplasmic reticulum (ER) transmembrane proteins and additional splice variants that act as precise ER-luminal Ca2+ sensors. STIM proteins mainly function as one of the two essential components of the so-called Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channel. The second CRAC channel component is constituted by pore-forming Orai proteins in the plasma membrane. STIM and Orai physically interact with each other to enable CRAC channel opening, which is a critical prerequisite for various downstream signalling pathways such as gene transcription or proliferation. Their activation commonly requires the emptying of the intracellular ER Ca2+ store. Using their Ca2+ sensing capabilities, STIM proteins confer this Ca2+ content-dependent signal to Orai, thereby linking Ca2+ store depletion to CRAC channel opening. Here we review the conformational dynamics occurring along the entire STIM protein upon store depletion, involving the transition from the quiescent, compactly folded structure into an active, extended state, modulation by a variety of accessory components in the cell as well as the impairment of individual steps of the STIM activation cascade associated with disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Sallinger
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria
| | - Herwig Grabmayr
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria
| | - Christina Humer
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria
| | - Daniel Bonhenry
- Center for Nanobiology and Structural Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Nove Hrady, Czech Republic
| | - Christoph Romanin
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria
| | - Rainer Schindl
- Gottfried Schatz Research Centre, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Isabella Derler
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Maintaining a precise calcium (Ca2+) balance is vital for cellular survival. The most prominent pathway to shuttle Ca2+ into cells is the Ca2+ release activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channel. Orai proteins are indispensable players in this central mechanism of Ca2+ entry. This short review traces the latest articles published in the field of CRAC channel signalling with a focus on the structure of the pore-forming Orai proteins, the propagation of the binding signal from STIM1 through the channel to the central pore and their role in human health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Sallinger
- Life Science Center, Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
| | - Sascha Berlansky
- Life Science Center, Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
| | - Irene Frischauf
- Life Science Center, Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhao J, Wang J. Specific and non-specific interactions between metal cations and zwitterionic alanine tripeptide in saline solutions reported by the symmetric carboxylate stretching and amide-II vibrations. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:25042-25053. [PMID: 33112337 DOI: 10.1039/d0cp04247a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The "specific" interaction between metal cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Zn2+) and the charged COO- group, and the "non-specific" interaction between these cations and the peptide backbone of a zwitterionic trialanine (Ala3) in aqueous solutions were examined in detail, using linear infrared (IR) absorptions of the COO- symmetric stretching and the amide-II (mainly the C-N stretching) modes as IR probes. Different IR spectral changes in peak positions and intensities of the two IR probes clearly demonstrate their sensitivities to nearby cation distributions in distance and population. Quantum chemistry calculations and molecular dynamics simulations were used to describe the cation-peptide interaction picture. These combined results suggest that Na+ and Ca2+ tend to bind to the COO- group in the bidentate form, while Mg2+ and Zn2+ tend to bind to the COO- group in the pseudo-bridging form. The results also show that while all three divalent cations indirectly interact with the peptide backbone with large population, Ca2+ and Mg2+ can be sometimes distributed very close to the backbone. Such a non-specific cation interaction can be moderately sensed by the C-N stretching of the amide-II mode when cations approach the polar amide C[double bond, length as m-dash]O group, and is also influenced by the NH3+ charge group located at the N-terminus. The results suggest that the experimentally observed complication of the Hofmeister cation series shall be understood as a combined specific and non-specific cation-peptide interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Zhao
- Molecular Reaction Dynamics Laboratory, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China.
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yeung PSW, Ing CE, Yamashita M, Pomès R, Prakriya M. A sulfur-aromatic gate latch is essential for opening of the Orai1 channel pore. eLife 2020; 9:60751. [PMID: 33124982 PMCID: PMC7679135 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfur-aromatic interactions occur in the majority of protein structures, yet little is known about their functional roles in ion channels. Here, we describe a novel molecular motif, the M101 gate latch, which is essential for gating of human Orai1 channels via its sulfur-aromatic interactions with the F99 hydrophobic gate. Molecular dynamics simulations of different Orai variants reveal that the gate latch is mostly engaged in open but not closed channels. In experimental studies, we use metal-ion bridges to show that promoting an M101-F99 bond directly activates Orai1, whereas disrupting this interaction triggers channel closure. Mutational analysis demonstrates that the methionine residue at this position has a unique combination of length, flexibility, and chemistry to act as an effective latch for the phenylalanine gate. Because sulfur-aromatic interactions provide additional stabilization compared to purely hydrophobic interactions, we infer that the six M101-F99 pairs in the hexameric channel provide a substantial energetic contribution to Orai1 activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla S-W Yeung
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, United States
| | - Christopher E Ing
- Molecular Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Megumi Yamashita
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, United States
| | - Régis Pomès
- Molecular Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Murali Prakriya
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Waldherr L, Tiffner A, Mishra D, Sallinger M, Schober R, Frischauf I, Schmidt T, Handl V, Sagmeister P, Köckinger M, Derler I, Üçal M, Bonhenry D, Patz S, Schindl R. Blockage of Store-Operated Ca 2+ Influx by Synta66 is Mediated by Direct Inhibition of the Ca 2+ Selective Orai1 Pore. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E2876. [PMID: 33036292 PMCID: PMC7600887 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12102876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The Ca2+ sensor STIM1 and the Ca2+ channel Orai1 that form the store-operated Ca2+ (SOC) channel complex are key targets for drug development. Selective SOC inhibitors are currently undergoing clinical evaluation for the treatment of auto-immune and inflammatory responses and are also deemed promising anti-neoplastic agents since SOC channels are linked with enhanced cancer cell progression. Here, we describe an investigation of the site of binding of the selective inhibitor Synta66 to the SOC channel Orai1 using docking and molecular dynamics simulations, and live cell recordings. Synta66 binding was localized to the extracellular site close to the transmembrane (TM)1 and TM3 helices and the extracellular loop segments, which, importantly, are adjacent to the Orai1-selectivity filter. Synta66-sensitivity of the Orai1 pore was, in fact, diminished by both Orai1 mutations affecting Ca2+ selectivity and permeation of Na+ in the absence of Ca2+. Synta66 also efficiently blocked SOC in three glioblastoma cell lines but failed to interfere with cell viability, division and migration. These experiments provide new structural and functional insights into selective drug inhibition of the Orai1 Ca2+ channel by a high-affinity pore blocker.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda Waldherr
- Gottfried Schatz Research Centre, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (L.W.); (R.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Adela Tiffner
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Centre, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (A.T.); (M.S.); (I.F.); (I.D.)
| | - Deepti Mishra
- Centre for Nanobiology and Structural Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 373 33 Nové Hrady, Czech Republic;
| | - Matthias Sallinger
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Centre, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (A.T.); (M.S.); (I.F.); (I.D.)
| | - Romana Schober
- Gottfried Schatz Research Centre, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (L.W.); (R.S.); (T.S.)
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Centre, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (A.T.); (M.S.); (I.F.); (I.D.)
| | - Irene Frischauf
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Centre, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (A.T.); (M.S.); (I.F.); (I.D.)
| | - Tony Schmidt
- Gottfried Schatz Research Centre, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (L.W.); (R.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Verena Handl
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (V.H.); (M.Ü.)
| | - Peter Sagmeister
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstraße 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (P.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Manuel Köckinger
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstraße 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (P.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Isabella Derler
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Centre, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (A.T.); (M.S.); (I.F.); (I.D.)
| | - Muammer Üçal
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (V.H.); (M.Ü.)
| | - Daniel Bonhenry
- Centre for Nanobiology and Structural Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 373 33 Nové Hrady, Czech Republic;
| | - Silke Patz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (V.H.); (M.Ü.)
| | - Rainer Schindl
- Gottfried Schatz Research Centre, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (L.W.); (R.S.); (T.S.)
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Centre, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (A.T.); (M.S.); (I.F.); (I.D.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sallinger M, Tiffner A, Schmidt T, Bonhenry D, Waldherr L, Frischauf I, Lunz V, Derler I, Schober R, Schindl R. Luminal STIM1 Mutants that Cause Tubular Aggregate Myopathy Promote Autophagic Processes. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4410. [PMID: 32575830 PMCID: PMC7352373 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21124410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) is a ubiquitously expressed Ca2+ sensor protein that induces permeation of Orai Ca2+ channels upon endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-store depletion. A drop in luminal Ca2+ causes partial unfolding of the N-terminal STIM1 domains and thus initial STIM1 activation. We compared the STIM1 structure upon Ca2+ depletion from our molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with a recent 2D NMR structure. Simulation- and structure-based results showed unfolding of two α-helices in the canonical and in the non-canonical EF-hand. Further, we structurally and functionally evaluated mutations in the non-canonical EF-hand that have been shown to cause tubular aggregate myopathy. We found these mutations to cause full constitutive activation of Ca2+-release-activated Ca2+ currents (ICRAC) and to promote autophagic processes. Specifically, heterologously expressed STIM1 mutations in the non-canonical EF-hand promoted translocation of the autophagy transcription factors microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) and transcription factor EB (TFEB) into the nucleus. These STIM1 mutations additionally stimulated an enhanced production of autophagosomes. In summary, mutations in STIM1 that cause structural unfolding promoted Ca2+ down-stream activation of autophagic processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Sallinger
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (M.S.); (A.T.); (I.F.); (V.L.); (I.D.)
| | - Adéla Tiffner
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (M.S.); (A.T.); (I.F.); (V.L.); (I.D.)
| | - Tony Schmidt
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (T.S.); (L.W.)
| | - Daniel Bonhenry
- Center for Nanobiology and Structural Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, CZ-373 33 Nove Hrady, Czech Republic;
| | - Linda Waldherr
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (T.S.); (L.W.)
| | - Irene Frischauf
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (M.S.); (A.T.); (I.F.); (V.L.); (I.D.)
| | - Victoria Lunz
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (M.S.); (A.T.); (I.F.); (V.L.); (I.D.)
| | - Isabella Derler
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (M.S.); (A.T.); (I.F.); (V.L.); (I.D.)
| | - Romana Schober
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria; (M.S.); (A.T.); (I.F.); (V.L.); (I.D.)
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (T.S.); (L.W.)
| | - Rainer Schindl
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria; (T.S.); (L.W.)
- BioTechMed-Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Schober R, Bonhenry D, Lunz V, Zhu J, Krizova A, Frischauf I, Fahrner M, Zhang M, Waldherr L, Schmidt T, Derler I, Stathopulos PB, Romanin C, Ettrich RH, Schindl R. Sequential activation of STIM1 links Ca 2+ with luminal domain unfolding. Sci Signal 2019; 12:eaax3194. [PMID: 31744929 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aax3194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) has two important functions, Ca2+ sensing within the endoplasmic reticulum and activation of the store-operated Ca2+ channel Orai1, enabling plasma-membrane Ca2+ influx. We combined molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with live-cell recordings and determined the sequential Ca2+-dependent conformations of the luminal STIM1 domain upon activation. Furthermore, we identified the residues within the canonical and noncanonical EF-hand domains that can bind to multiple Ca2+ ions. In MD simulations, a single Ca2+ ion was sufficient to stabilize the luminal STIM1 complex. Ca2+ store depletion destabilized the two EF hands, triggering disassembly of the hydrophobic cleft that they form together with the stable SAM domain. Point mutations associated with tubular aggregate myopathy or cancer that targeted the canonical EF hand, and the hydrophobic cleft yielded constitutively clustered STIM1, which was associated with activation of Ca2+ entry through Orai1 channels. On the basis of our results, we present a model of STIM1 Ca2+ binding and refine the currently known initial steps of STIM1 activation on a molecular level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Romana Schober
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Daniel Bonhenry
- Center for Nanobiology and Structural Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Nove Hrady CZ-373 33, Czech Republic
| | - Victoria Lunz
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Jinhui Zhu
- Schulich Dentistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Adela Krizova
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Irene Frischauf
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Marc Fahrner
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - MengQi Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Linda Waldherr
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Tony Schmidt
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Isabella Derler
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Peter B Stathopulos
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Christoph Romanin
- Institute of Biophysics, JKU Life Science Center, Johannes Kepler University Linz, A-4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Rüdiger H Ettrich
- Center for Nanobiology and Structural Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Nove Hrady CZ-373 33, Czech Republic.
- College of Biomedical Sciences, Larkin University, Miami, FL 33169, USA
| | - Rainer Schindl
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
- BioTechMed-Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Yeung PSW, Yamashita M, Prakriya M. Molecular basis of allosteric Orai1 channel activation by STIM1. J Physiol 2019; 598:1707-1723. [PMID: 30950063 DOI: 10.1113/jp276550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Store-operated Ca2+ entry through Orai1 channels is a primary mechanism for Ca2+ entry in many cells and mediates numerous cellular effector functions ranging from gene transcription to exocytosis. Orai1 channels are amongst the most Ca2+ -selective channels known and are activated by direct physical interactions with the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) in response to store depletion triggered by stimulation of a variety of cell surface G-protein coupled and tyrosine kinase receptors. Work in the last decade has revealed that the Orai1 gating process is highly cooperative and strongly allosteric, likely driven by a wave of interdependent conformational changes throughout the protein originating in the peripheral C-terminal ligand binding site and culminating in pore opening. In this review, we survey the structural and molecular features in Orai1 that contribute to channel gating and consider how they give rise to the unique biophysical fingerprint of Orai1 currents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla See-Wai Yeung
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Megumi Yamashita
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Murali Prakriya
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Nussinov R, Tsai CJ, Shehu A, Jang H. Computational Structural Biology: Successes, Future Directions, and Challenges. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24030637. [PMID: 30759724 PMCID: PMC6384756 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24030637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Computational biology has made powerful advances. Among these, trends in human health have been uncovered through heterogeneous 'big data' integration, and disease-associated genes were identified and classified. Along a different front, the dynamic organization of chromatin is being elucidated to gain insight into the fundamental question of genome regulation. Powerful conformational sampling methods have also been developed to yield a detailed molecular view of cellular processes. when combining these methods with the advancements in the modeling of supramolecular assemblies, including those at the membrane, we are finally able to get a glimpse into how cells' actions are regulated. Perhaps most intriguingly, a major thrust is on to decipher the mystery of how the brain is coded. Here, we aim to provide a broad, yet concise, sketch of modern aspects of computational biology, with a special focus on computational structural biology. We attempt to forecast the areas that computational structural biology will embrace in the future and the challenges that it may face. We skirt details, highlight successes, note failures, and map directions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Nussinov
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Basic Science Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
- Sackler Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
| | - Chung-Jung Tsai
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Basic Science Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
| | - Amarda Shehu
- Departments of Computer Science, Department of Bioengineering, and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA.
| | - Hyunbum Jang
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Basic Science Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
| |
Collapse
|