Breastmilk feeding for mothers and infants with opioid exposure: What is best?

A Qualitative Analysis of Multilevel Barriers and Facilitators to Breastfeeding for Mothers Receiving Medication for Opioid Use Disorder

BACKGROUND

As national rates of opioid use disorder (OUD) continue to persist, the resulting impact on the affected mother-infant dyad is immense. While there is concrete evidence in support of breastfeeding in women receiving medication for OUD, gaps in widespread support for breastfeeding in this population remain, leading to continued breastfeeding disparities.

PURPOSE

Explore the multilevel barriers and facilitators to breastfeeding for mothers receiving medication for OUD.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were completed with a total of 29 participants (N = 14 mothers, N = 3 family members, and N = 12 providers). We used three levels of the socio-ecological model, including the individual, microsystem, and macrosystem, to guide our multiple case study analysis. Qualitative, latent content analysis was used to focus on identifying and understanding barriers and facilitators to breastfeeding across these various levels.

RESULTS

Participants across groups identified barriers to breastfeeding at all three socio-ecological model levels, while facilitators were only identified at the individual and microsystem levels. Across the different levels of the socio-ecological model, six subthemes emerged: (1) breastfeeding knowledge and readiness; (2) infant factors; (3) support; (4) daily routines; (5) organizational environment; and (6) policies.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

Application of the socio-ecological model to identify barriers and facilitators to breastfeeding may inform approaches that are sustainable and more likely to improve rates of breastfeeding over time for mothers receiving medication for OUDs.

Factors associated with medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) treatment success during the pregnancy and postpartum periods: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) are a crucial intervention for pregnant and postpartum individuals with opioid use disorder (OUD). However, there is paucity of data on the factors associated with MOUD treatment success in this population. This scoping review aimed to evaluate factors associated with MOUD success during the pregnancy and postpartum period.

METHODS

We completed a structured search of MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and ProQuest databases. Eligible studies included a metric of success in outpatient treatment in the pregnancy and postpartum period and were conducted in the United States after the Food and Drug Administration's approval of buprenorphine in 2002. Reviewers independently screened studies for inclusion and extracted data. The primary outcome was treatment success (i.e., treatment adherence, abstinence from illicit opioids, or retention in care) during pregnancy and up to 12 months postpartum.

RESULTS

Data from 15 studies were included. Medications included methadone, naltrexone and buprenorphine (mono or combination therapy). High daily dose of buprenorphine as mono or combination therapy, early initiation and longer duration of MOUD were associated with treatment success. Legal involvement, homelessness, and rural residency were negatively associated with treatment success. There were no differences in outcomes of individuals receiving telemedicine versus in-person care.

CONCLUSION

We identified several factors associated with MOUD treatment success among individuals with OUD during the pregnancy and postpartum periods. These factors may help guide future research and inform the development and adaptation of interventions tailored to better meet the needs of this key population.

A Longitudinal Qualitative Study of Barriers and Facilitators of Breastfeeding in Women on Opioid Maintenance Therapy

PURPOSE

To understand how barriers and facilitators interact over time to support or disrupt breastfeeding among women on opioid maintenance therapy for opioid use disorder.

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding has additional benefits for newborns with prenatal opioid exposure. Up to 80% of women on opioid maintenance therapy plan to breastfeed, but many do not beyond the first 7 to 10 days.

METHODS

A qualitative, longitudinal design was used. Semi-structured interviews occurred during the third trimester of pregnancy and again between 1 and 6 weeks postpartum. Thematic analysis was conducted using the Breastfeeding in a Life Course Context model as a framework. The design and methods were informed by a post-positivist, critical realist perspective.

RESULTS

Thirteen participants were enrolled, and 19 interviews were completed. Five themes were identified. It Will Work Out was the primary theme that describes participants' sense of self-efficacy, stemming from their experiences of managing addiction recovery. Women considered breastfeeding to support their own health and that of their newborn while in recovery, summarized by Being Healthy. Making the choice to breastfeed, represented by Weighing the Options, was influenced by their perinatal health care providers. During the Sensitive Period, challenges could overwhelm their self-efficacy. Of 9 women, 4 were still breastfeeding when interviewed postpartum, exemplified by Moving On.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Participants' self-efficacy and motivation to be healthy played a significant role in managing breastfeeding challenges over time. Nursing interventions must empower women's self-efficacy to help them achieve their breastfeeding goals.

Breastfeeding Intention, Knowledge, and Attitude of Pregnant Women in Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to describe breastfeeding intention, knowledge, and attitude, and sources of infant feeding information during the prenatal period among a cohort of pregnant women in treatment for opioid use disorder (OUD).

STUDY DESIGN

Pregnant women who were receiving treatment for OUD and in the third trimester completed a questionnaire that measured demographic characteristics, infant feeding intentions, breastfeeding beliefs and attitudes, and sources of breastfeeding information. Frequency counts and percentages and means and standard deviations were used to describe data.

RESULTS

Sixty-five women completed the survey. Three-fourths reported some intention to breastfeeding. While attitudes around breastfeeding were generally positive, less than half of respondents knew the recommendations and infant health benefits of breastfeeding.

CONCLUSION

Prenatal programs for women in treatment for OUD should consider addressing patient-reported concerns and gaps in knowledge regarding the benefits of and recommendation for breastfeeding.

KEY POINTS

· Breastfeeding has unique benefits for mother-infant dyads affected by maternal OUD.. · Breastfeeding decisions are influenced by maternal psychosocial factors (e.g., knowledge and attitudes), however, such factors have not been previously assessed in women in treatment for OUD.. · Results indicate that attitudes around breastfeeding are positive but knowledge gaps exist..

Perigestational Opioid Exposure Alters Alcohol-Driven Reward Behaviors in Adolescent Rats

Every fifteen minutes, a baby is born in the U.S. experiencing neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS). Since 2004, the rate of NOWS has increased 7-fold. Clinical studies have established intrauterine exposure to drugs of abuse as a risk factor for adverse health outcomes in adult life, including the propensity for future illicit drug use. Despite extensive knowledge about common mechanisms of action in the neural circuitry that drives opioid and alcohol reward, there is little data on the risks that those born with NOWS face regarding alcohol use later in life. Here, we investigate the impact of perigestational opioid exposure (POE) on the mesolimbic reward system of male and female Sprague Dawley rats at postnatal and adolescent ages. Our laboratory has developed a clinically relevant model for morphine exposure spanning pre-conception to the first week of life. Using this model, we found that POE increased alcohol consumption in female rats under noncontingent conditions, and inversely, reduced alcohol consumption in both male and female rats during operant conditioning sessions. Operant responding was also reduced for sucrose, suggesting that the impact of POE on reward-seeking behaviors is not limited to drugs of abuse. Expression of µ-opioid receptors was also significantly altered in the nucleus accumbens and medial habenula, regions previously shown to play a significant role in reward/aversion circuitry.

Significance Statement

Early life exposure to opioids is known to alter future drug behavior in rats. In the present study, female rats exposed to morphine via their mothers throughout and after pregnancy exhibited increased alcohol consumption when allowed to consume freely. During operant conditioning, however, male and female rats exposed to gestational morphine decreased consumption of alcohol as well as sucrose. We also observed that gestational morphine exposure altered µ-opioid receptor expression in reward-related brain regions. Our study provides the first evidence of changes in alcohol-directed reward behavior in a gestational opioid exposure rat model.

Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Clinical Protocol #21: Breastfeeding in the Setting of Substance Use and Substance Use Disorder (Revised 2023)

Background: The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine (ABM) revised the 2015 version of the substance use disorder (SUD) clinical protocol to review the evidence and provide updated literature-based recommendations related to breastfeeding in the setting of substance use and SUD treatments. Key Information: Decisions around breastfeeding are an important aspect of care during the peripartum period, and there are specific benefits and risks for substance-exposed mother-infant dyads. Recommendations: This protocol provides breastfeeding recommendations in the setting of nonprescribed opioid, stimulant, sedative-hypnotic, alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis use, and SUD treatments. Additionally, we offer guidance on the utility of toxicology testing in breastfeeding recommendations. Individual programs and institutions should establish consistent breastfeeding approaches that mitigate bias, facilitate consistency, and empower mothers with SUD. For specific breastfeeding recommendations, given the complexity of breastfeeding in mothers with SUD, individualized care plans should be created in partnership with the patient and multidisciplinary team with appropriate clinical support and follow-up. In general, breastfeeding is recommended among mothers who stop nonprescribed substance use by the time of delivery, and they should continue to receive ongoing postpartum care, such as lactation support and SUD treatment. Overall, enhancing breastfeeding education regarding substance use in pregnancy and lactation is essential to allow for patient-centered guidance.

A Scoping Review of Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal and the Infant Gut Microbiome: Does Human Milk Optimize Infant Outcomes?

BACKGROUND

While a growing body of literature has established the role of human milk as a mechanism of protection in the formation of the infant gut microbiome, it remains unclear the extent to which this association exists for infants with neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this scoping review was to describe the current state of the literature regarding the influence of human milk on infant gut microbiota in infants with neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome.

DATA SOURCES

CINAHL, PubMed, and Scopus databases were searched for original studies published from January 2009 through February 2022. Additionally, unpublished studies across relevant trial registries, conference proceedings, websites, and organizations were reviewed for possible inclusion. A total of 1610 articles met selection criteria through database and register searches and 20 through manual reference searches.

STUDY SELECTION

Inclusion criteria were primary research studies, written in English, published between 2009 and 2022, including a sample of infants with neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome/neonatal abstinence syndrome, and focusing on the relationship between the receipt of human milk and the infant gut microbiome.

DATA EXTRACTION

Two authors independently conducted title/abstract and full-text review until there was consensus of study selection.

RESULTS

No studies satisfied the inclusion criteria, which resulted in an empty review.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

Findings from this study document the paucity of data exploring the associations between human milk, the infant gut microbiome, and subsequent neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome. Further, these results highlight the timely importance of prioritizing this area of scientific inquiry.

Verbal Behavior of Mothers With Opioid Use Disorder While Feeding Infants With Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome

BACKGROUND

An infant's cognitive development is highly dependent on early interactions with its primary caregiver, often its mother. Feeding, a frequent and early exchange between mothers and infants, is an important time for maternal-infant bonding. Mothers with opioid use disorder have been found to be more physically and verbally stimulating and more active during feeds than mothers with no opioid use.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics of verbal interactions mothers with opioid use disorder expressed while engaged in a feeding encounter with their infant undergoing treatment for neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome to offer insight into maternal experiences and potential challenges of feeding infants experiencing withdrawal.

METHODS

A qualitative descriptive analysis of maternal verbalizations during the feeding was used in a secondary analysis using the Barnard Model as the theoretical framework for maternal-infant interaction.

RESULTS

A theory-driven deductive approach was assumed to organize the identified subthemes within the concepts of the Barnard Model. Mothers frequently commented on hunger, satiation, and stress cues, while providing consolation, praise, and encouragement. Mothers expressed concerns regarding feeding volume and pace, and consequences related to feeding.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

It is crucial that clinicians remember that feeding is an important time for maternal-infant bonding. Further research into the feeding interactions of mother-infant dyads with opioid exposure is warranted. As infants may present with subacute signs of withdrawal, including persistent feeding difficulties for months, further investigation into feeding challenges dyads experience after discharge from the hospital is needed.

Evidence for the Normalization Effects of Medication for Opioid Use Disorder on Functional Connectivity in Neonates with Prenatal Opioid Exposure

Altered functional connectivity has been reported in infants with prenatal exposure to opioids, which significantly interrupts and influences endogenous neurotransmitter/receptor signaling during fetal programming. Better birth outcomes and long-term developmental outcomes are associated with medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD) during pregnancy, but the neural mechanisms underlying these benefits are largely unknown. We aimed to characterize effects of prenatal opioid/other drug exposure (PODE) and the neural basis for the reported beneficial effects of MOUD by examining neonatal brain functional organization. A cohort of 109 human newborns, 42 PODE, 39 with prenatal exposure to drugs excluding opioids (PDE), 28 drug-free controls (males and females) underwent resting-state fMRI at 2 weeks of age. To examine neural effects of MOUD, PODE infants were separated into subgroups based on whether mothers received MOUD (n = 31) or no treatment (n = 11). A novel heatmap analysis was designed to characterize PODE-associated functional connectivity alterations and MOUD-related effects, and permutation testing identified regions of interest with significant effects. PODE neonates showed alterations beyond those associated with PDE, particularly in reward-related frontal-sensory connectivity. MOUD was associated with a significant reduction of PODE-related alterations in key regions of endogenous opioid pathways including limbic and frontal connections. However, significant residual effects in limbic and subcortical circuitry were observed. These findings confirm altered brain functional organization associated with PODE. Importantly, widespread normalization effects associated with MOUD reveal, for the first time, the potential brain basis of the beneficial effects of MOUD on the developing brain and underscore the importance of this treatment intervention for better developmental outcomes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This is the first study to reveal the potential neural mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects on the neonate brain associated with MOUD during pregnancy. We identified both normalization and residual effects of MOUD on brain functional architecture by directly comparing neonates prenatally exposed to opioids with MOUD and those exposed to opioids but without MOUD. Our findings confirm altered brain functional organization associated with prenatal opioid exposure and demonstrate that although significant residual effects remain in reward circuitry, MOUD confers significant normalization effects on functional connectivity of regions associated with socioemotional development and reward processing. Together, our results highlight the importance of MOUD intervention for better neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Scoping Review of Barriers and Facilitators of Breastfeeding in Women on Opioid Maintenance Therapy

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize the literature on the barriers and facilitators of breastfeeding among women on opioid maintenance therapy (OMT) to inform nursing interventions and improve breastfeeding outcomes.

DATA SOURCES

We searched 11 databases using the following key terms: breastfeeding, barriers, facilitators, promotion, and opioid.

STUDY SELECTION

We included articles published in English since 2015 that addressed barriers and facilitators of breastfeeding in women on OMT. We did not limit our search to specific types of studies. Our search produced 65 records. After reviewing titles and abstracts, we assessed 21 full-text articles and excluded seven for lack of data related to our key terms. As a result, we included five qualitative studies, three reviews, three mixed-methods studies, two retrospective cohort studies, and one case report (14 articles) in our final review.

DATA EXTRACTION

We extracted data from each article and sorted them in a table for analysis and synthesis. Data included study purpose, research questions, design and methodology, and findings specifically pertaining to the identification of barriers and facilitators of breastfeeding for women on OMT.

DATA SYNTHESIS

We identified three themes related to facilitators of and barriers to breastfeeding: Information, Support, and Health Care System Factors.

CONCLUSION

The results of our review suggest that most barriers and facilitators of breastfeeding in women on OMT are manageable with improved health care practices. Primary and acute care health professionals should modify practices to minimize barriers to breastfeeding. Nurses should provide better breastfeeding education and preparation, sensitive care in the immediate postpartum period, and extended follow-up after hospital discharge for women on OMT.

Opioids and the developing brain: time to rethink perinatal care for infants of opioid-dependent mothers

Illicit use of opioids is a global health crisis with major implications for women and children. Strategies for managing opioid use disorder (OUD) in pregnancy have been tested over the past 40 years, but studies have focused on maternal and pregnancy outcomes, with less attention given to long-term follow-up of exposed children. Here, we provide a narrative review of recent advances in the assessment and management of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS), and we summarise evidence from multiple domains-neuroimaging, electrophysiology, visual development and function, neurodevelopment, behaviour, cognition and education-which suggests that prenatal opioid exposure modifies child development. Further studies are required to determine the optimal management of pregnant women with OUD and babies with NOWS. We identify knowledge gaps and suggest that future study designs should evaluate childhood outcomes, including infant brain development and long-term neurocognitive and visual function.

Clinical care of neonates undergoing opioid withdrawal in the immediate postpartum period

As the opioid epidemic escalates in westernized countries around the world, chronic opioid use during pregnancy has become a growing public health issue. There are increasing concerns that chronic maternal opioid use might adversely affect the developing fetal brain. Furthermore, the sudden discontinuation of the trans-placental opioid supply at birth puts newborns at acute risk for neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS). NOWS is a multi-system disorder that has been identified in approximately 50-80% of neonates exposed to opioids due to chronic maternal use. Clinically, NOWS affects the central and autonomic nervous systems as well as the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. The clinical features of NOWS include hyperirritability, high-pitched crying, restlessness, tremors, poor sleep, agitation, seizures, sweating, fever, poor feeding, regurgitation, diarrhea, and tachypnea. NOWS is currently diagnosed using a clinical scoring tool followed by toxicological confirmation of the presence of opioids in meconium or tissue specimens. The first-line treatments for NOWS are non-pharmacologic comfort measures. If these measures fail, neonates may be treated with opioids and/or sedatives. Since the severity of NOWS can be highly variable, it is quite difficult to predict which opioid-exposed neonates will require pharmacotherapy and prolonged hospitalization. Factors associated with maternal polysubstance use, including the use of illicit substances and tobacco, have been associated with the increased severity and duration of NOWS. Since neonates with NOWS are at increased risk for long-term adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, ongoing monitoring beyond the neonatal period is essential.

The Effects of opioids on female fertility, pregnancy and the breastfeeding mother-infant dyad: A Review

Opioids cover a broad class of natural, synthetic and semi-synthetic drugs that act on opioid receptors to produce powerful analgesic effects. Rates of opioid use and opioid agonist maintenance treatment have increased substantially in recent years, particularly among women. Trends and outcomes of opioids use on fertility, pregnancy and breastfeeding, and longer-term child developmental outcomes have not been well-described. Here, we review the existing literature on the health effects of opioid use on female fertility, pregnancy, breastmilk and the exposed infant. We find that the current literature is primarily concentrated on the impact of opioid use in pregnancy and neonatal outcomes, with little exploration of effects on fertility. Studies are limited in number, some with small sample sizes, and many are hampered by methodological challenges related to confounding and other potential biases. Opioid use is becoming more prevalent due to environmental pressures such as COVID-19. More research is needed to better elucidate its effects on reproductive health among younger women and support the development of evidence-based recommendations for safe prescription practices and public health messaging.

Non-pharmacological care for opioid withdrawal in newborns

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of substance use, both prescribed and non-prescribed, is increasing in many areas of the world. Substance use by women of childbearing age contributes to increasing rates of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS) is a newer term describing the subset of NAS related to opioid exposure. Non-pharmacological care is the first-line treatment for substance withdrawal in newborns. Despite the widespread use of non-pharmacological care to mitigate symptoms of NAS, there is not an established definition of, and standard for, non-pharmacological care practices in this population. Evaluation of safety and efficacy of non-pharmacological practices could provide clear guidance for clinical practice.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of non-pharmacological treatment of infants at risk for, or having symptoms consistent with, opioid withdrawal on the length of hospitalization and use of pharmacological treatment for symptom management. Comparison 1: in infants at risk for, or having early symptoms consistent with, opioid withdrawal, does non-pharmacological treatment reduce the length of hospitalization and use of pharmacological treatment? Comparison 2: in infants receiving pharmacological treatment for symptoms consistent with opioid withdrawal, does concurrent non-pharmacological treatment reduce duration of pharmacological treatment, maximum and cumulative doses of opioid medication, and length of hospitalization?

SEARCH METHODS

We used the standard search strategy of Cochrane Neonatal to search CENTRAL (2019, Issue 10); Ovid MEDLINE; and CINAHL on 11 October 2019. We also searched clinical trials databases and the reference lists of retrieved articles for randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, and cluster trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included trials comparing single or bundled non-pharmacological interventions to no non-pharmacological treatment or different single or bundled non-pharmacological interventions. We assessed non-pharmacological interventions independently and in combination based on sufficient similarity in population, intervention, and comparison groups studied. We categorized non-pharmacological interventions as: modifying environmental stimulation, feeding practices, and support of the mother-infant dyad. We presented non-randomized studies identified in the search process narratively.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of evidence. Primary outcomes in infants at risk for, or having early symptoms consistent with, opioid withdrawal included length of hospitalization and pharmacological treatment with one or more doses of opioid or sedative medication. Primary outcomes in infants receiving opioid treatment for symptoms consistent with opioid withdrawal included length of hospitalization, length of pharmacological treatment with opioid or sedative medication, and maximum and cumulative doses of opioid medication.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified six RCTs (353 infants) in which infants at risk for, or having symptoms consistent with, opioid withdrawal participated between 1975 and 2018. We identified no RCTs in which infants receiving opioid treatment for symptoms consistent with opioid withdrawal participated. The certainty of evidence for all outcomes was very low to low. We also identified and excluded 34 non-randomized studies published between 2005 and 2018, including 29 in which infants at risk for, or having symptoms consistent with, opioid withdrawal participated and five in which infants receiving opioid treatment for symptoms consistent with opioid withdrawal participated. We identified seven preregistered interventional clinical trials that may qualify for inclusion at review update when complete. Of the six RCTs, four studies assessed modifying environmental stimulation in the form of a mechanical rocking bed, prone positioning, non-oscillating waterbed, or a low-stimulation nursery; one study assessed feeding practices (comparing 24 kcal/oz to 20 kcal/oz formula); and one study assessed support of the maternal-infant dyad (tailored breastfeeding support). There was no evidence of a difference in length of hospitalization in the one study that assessed modifying environmental stimulation (mean difference [MD) -1 day, 95% confidence interval [CI) -2.82 to 0.82; 30 infants; very low-certainty evidence) and the one study of support of the maternal-infant dyad (MD -8.9 days, 95% CI -19.84 to 2.04; 14 infants; very low-certainty evidence). No studies of feeding practices evaluated the length of hospitalization. There was no evidence of a difference in use of pharmacological treatment in three studies of modifying environmental stimulation (typical risk ratio [RR) 1.00, 95% CI 0.86 to 1.16; 92 infants; low-certainty evidence), one study of feeding practices (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.63 to 1.33; 49 infants; very low-certainty evidence), and one study of support of the maternal-infant dyad (RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.90; 14 infants; very low-certainty evidence). Reported secondary outcomes included neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission, days to regain birth weight, and weight nadir. One study of support of the maternal-infant dyad reported NICU admission (RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.90; 14 infants; very low-certainty evidence). One study of feeding practices reported days to regain birth weight (MD 1.10 days, 95% CI 2.76 to 0.56; 46 infants; very low-certainty evidence). One study that assessed modifying environmental stimulation reported weight nadir (MD -0.28, 95% CI -1.15 to 0.59; 194 infants; very low-certainty evidence) and one study of feeding practices reported weight nadir (MD -0.8, 95% CI -2.24 to 0.64; 46 infants; very low-certainty evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We are uncertain whether non-pharmacological care for opioid withdrawal in newborns affects important clinical outcomes including length of hospitalization and use of pharmacological treatment based on the six included studies. The outcomes identified for this review were of very low- to low-certainty evidence. Combined analysis was limited by heterogeneity in study design and intervention definitions as well as the number of studies. Many prespecified outcomes were not reported. Although caregivers are encouraged by experts to optimize non-pharmacological care for opioid withdrawal in newborns prior to initiating pharmacological care, we do not have sufficient evidence to inform specific clinical practices. Larger well-designed studies are needed to determine the effect of non-pharmacological care for opioid withdrawal in newborns.

A Review of Feeding Practices in Infants With Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

BACKGROUND

There has been an increase in infants with neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) over the past several decades. Infants with NAS experience withdrawal as a result of the sudden termination at birth of substance exposure during pregnancy. A serious sign related to infants diagnosed with NAS is poor feeding. The prevalence of NAS urges researchers and clinicians to develop effective strategies and techniques to treat and manage the poor feeding of infants exposed to substances in utero.

PURPOSE

To synthesize current feeding methods and practices used for infants diagnosed with NAS.

METHODS/SEARCH STRATEGY

PubMed, CINAHL, and Scopus were searched for articles published within the last 20 years that focused on feeding practices or feeding schedules, were written in English, were peer-reviewed, and described human studies. The search terms utilized were "neonatal abstinence syndrome" OR "neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome" AND "feeding."

FINDINGS/RESULTS

Three findings emerged regarding techniques and management of poor feeding in the NAS population. The findings included infants who received mother's own milk had decreased severity and later onset of clinical signs of withdrawal, demand feeding is recommended, and the infant's cues may be helpful to follow when feeding.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Clinicians should encourage mother's own milk in this population unless contraindications are present. Caregivers and clinicians must be receptive to cues when feeding infants with NAS.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

Even with the clinical knowledge and experience that infants with NAS are difficult to feed, there is limited research assessing techniques and schedules that are effective in managing successful feeding. Future research should compare feeding schedules such as on-demand feeding versus regimented feeding schedules, as well as investigate techniques that mothers and nurses can utilize to encourage oral intake in this population.Video abstract available at https://journals.lww.com/advancesinneonatalcare/Pages/videogallery.aspx?autoPlay=false&videoId=37.

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome: Review of Epidemiology, Care Models, and Current Understanding of Outcomes

The incidence of neonatal abstinence syndrome owing to prenatal opioid exposure has grown rapidly in recent decades and it disproportionately affects rural, non-white, and public insurance-dependent populations. Treatment consists of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic interventions with wide variability in approaches across the United States. Standardizing clinical assessment, minimizing unnecessary interruptions, and prioritizing nonpharmacologic and family-centered care seems to improve hospital outcomes. Neonatal abstinence syndrome may have long-term developmental and biological effects, but understanding is limited owing in part confounding biosocial factors. Early intervention and longitudinal support of the infant and family promote better outcomes.