Sleep disordered breathing as a cause and consequence of stroke: A review of pathophysiological and clinical relationships

Evaluation of the Prevalence of Sleep Disorders and Their Association with Stroke: A Hospital-Based Retrospective Study

Background: Sleep disturbances are prevalent among stroke survivors, significantly impacting their recovery and quality of life. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of sleep disorders, sleep quality, risk of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), and daytime sleepiness among stroke survivors and to identify potential associations with clinical and demographic factors. Materials and Methods: A retrospective observational study analyzed adult stroke survivors (aged ≥ 18 years) attending neurology clinics at our institution from November 2022 to November 2024. The primary outcome measures included overall sleep quality, sleep apnea and daytime sleepiness assessment. Data were collected using validated Arabic versions of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), STOP-Bang Questionnaire, and Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). Statistical analyses, including Chi-square tests and t-tests, were performed using SPSS version 30.1. Results: A total of 100 stroke survivors, mostly aged 40-60 years, were recruited in our study. The prevalence of sleep disorders was 60.0%, with poor sleep quality reflected by a mean global PSQI score of 9.13 ± 14.40. Additionally, 19.0% were at high risk of OSA, and 24.0% experienced abnormal daytime sleepiness. While no statistically significant associations were found between sleep disorders and clinical or demographic factors, trends indicated higher sleep disorder prevalence in those with hemorrhagic stroke and high-risk OSA profiles. Conclusions: Our study highlights a high prevalence of sleep disorders among stroke survivors, emphasizing the need for regular sleep assessments. Future studies should explore objective assessments and larger sample sizes to validate these findings and to assess their potential implication in stroke recovery and quality of life.

Myocardial DYRK1B Expression Is Increased in Patients with Impaired Cardiac Contractility and Sleep-Disordered Breathing

Heart failure and cardiovascular disease represent a significant burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Recent evidence associates an increased expression of the dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1B (DYRK1B) with an impaired cardiac function in mice. However, there remains a paucity of data on myocardial DYRK1B expression in patients with cardiovascular disease in the context of other comorbidities. In our study, we examined DYRK1B mRNA expression in human right atrial appendage biopsies from 159 patients undergoing elective coronary artery bypass surgery. Each patient was tested for sleep-disordered breathing the night prior to surgery. In this large representative study cohort with cardiovascular high-risk patients, we found that an impaired cardiac function as well as sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), including various oxidative stress parameters, were associated with an increased myocardial DYRK1B expression. A multivariate regression analysis revealed left ventricular ejection fraction and the presence of SDB as significant predictors of the myocardial DYRK1B expression independent of other clinical covariates. Based on these findings, DYRK1B represents a promising molecular target in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction as well in patients with sleep-disordered breathing.

Prevalence, incidence, and the time trends of sleep-disordered breathing among patients with stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have investigated the epidemiological burden of sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) in patients with stroke; however, the results have been inconsistent, and the temporal trends of SDB after stroke remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and incidence of post-stroke SDB, evaluate demographic and clinical characteristic predictors of post-stroke SDB, and examine temporal trends in the overall burden of post-stroke SDB.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Library for studies reporting the burden of SDB in stroke patients published between 1 January 2010 and 30 December 2023. Two researchers independently screened the records for eligibility, extracted the data, and assessed the quality of the studies. Data were analyzed using random effects meta-analyses, and sources of heterogeneity were explored using subgroup analyses and meta-regression analyses.

RESULTS

Out of the 8,799 references retrieved, none examined the incidence of SDB after stroke. However, 85 studies from 26 countries examined the prevalence of SDB and were included. The overall prevalence of SDB, mild SDB, and moderate to severe SDB were 60.0% (95% CI, 60.0-70.0%), 30.0% (95% CI, 23.0-37.0%), and 45.0% (95% CI, 33.0-57.0%), respectively. Meta-regression revealed that sex (p < 0.0001) and sample size (p < 0.01) were sources of heterogeneity among the studies. The pooled overall prevalence of SDB remained stable over time.

CONCLUSION

SDB is common in patients with stroke, and no reduction in the high prevalence of SDB has been observed over time, suggesting that early screening and prevention of post-stroke SDB still have not received sufficient attention. Moreover, additional studies investigating the incidence of this disease are needed to inform clinical practice.

Variability in sleep architecture and alterations in circadian rhythms in patients with acute cerebral infarction accompanied by sleep-disordered breathing

PURPOSE

To continuously and dynamically monitor the sleep status of patients in the acute phase of cerebral infarction, and to investigate the characteristics of acute cerebral infarction(ACI)associated with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), variations in sleep structure, and changes in sleep circadian rhythms.

METHODS

Patients with ACI within 48 h of onset who were admitted to the Department of Neurology at Kailuan General Hospital from November 2020 to December 2022 were selected. Detailed baseline information such as age, gender, smoking history, drinking history, were recorded for the selected participants. From the beginning of their hospitalization, the selected participants were monitored for their sleep status continuously for 5 days using the Intelligent Mattress-based Sleep Monitoring Platform System(IMSMPS). Based on the heart rate data obtained from the monitoring, the interdaily stability (IS) and intradaily variability (IV) of the sleep circadian rhythm were calculated.

RESULTS

1,367 patients with ACI were selected. Monitoring results over 5 days indicated 147 cases (10.75%) without SDB, and 1,220 cases (89.25%) with SDB. Among the group with SDB, there were 248 cases (18.14%) with continuous mild SDB, 395 cases (28.90%) with moderate SDB, 295 cases (21.58%) with severe SDB, and 282 cases (20.63%) that fluctuated between different severity levels. Within this fluctuating group, 152 cases (53.90%) fluctuated between two severity levels, 120 cases (42.55%) between three levels, and 10 cases (3.55%) among all four levels. There were statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in the sleep latency, sleep efficiency, non-rapid eye movement stages 1-2, rapid eye movement, proportion of non-rapid eye movement, proportion of rapid eye movement, wake after sleep onset, time out of bed, number of awakenings, respiratory variability index, and heart rate variability index among patients with ACI monitored from day 1 to 5. However, other monitored sleep structure parameters did not show statistically significant differences (P > 0.05). The coefficient of variation for all sleep monitoring parameters ranged between 14.54 and 36.57%. The IV in the SDB group was higher than in the group without SDB (P < 0.05), and the IS was lower than in the group without SDB (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Patients in the acute phase of cerebral infarction have a high probability of accompanying SDB. The sleep structure of these patients shows significant variability based on the onset time of the stroke, and some patients experience fluctuations among different severity levels of SDB. ACI accompanied by SDB can further reduce the IS of a patient's sleep circadian rhythm and increase its IV.

Study on the circadian rhythm and sleep state characteristics of patients with acute cerebral infarction accompanied by sleep-breathing disorders

There is limited research on the circadian rhythm and sleep state in patients with acute cerebral infarction (ACI) accompanied by sleep-breathing disorders (SDB). This study aims to provide a scientific basis for individualized diagnosis and treatment for stroke-related SDB patients. The SC-500 sleep monitor was used to continuously monitor 1367 ACI patients over 5 days. Based on the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), patients were divided into non-SDB group (normal) and SDB group (mild, moderate, severe, fluctuating). Interdaily stability (IS) and intradaily variability (IV) were calculated through heart rate monitoring, and sleep states and their correlations were analyzed. Compared to the non-SDB group, patients with moderate-to-severe ACI accompanied by SDB showed decreased IS, increased IV, and sleep fragmentation. Significant statistical differences were observed in total sleep time (TST), rapid eye movement latency (REML), sleep efficiency (SE), non-rapid eye movement stages 1-2 (NREM stages1-2), non-rapid eye movement stages 3-4 (NREM stages 3-4), proportion of non-rapid eye movement (NREM%), wake after sleep onset (WASO), and number of awakenings (NOA) between the SDB group and the non-SDB group (P < 0.05). AHI showed a strong negative correlation with IS and a strong positive correlation with IV. AHI was positively correlated with sleep latency (SL), REML, NREM stages1-2, NREM%, proportion of rapid eye movement (REM%), WASO, time out of bed (TOB), and NOA, and negatively correlated with TST, SE, NREM stages 3-4, and rapid eye movement (REM), all with statistical significance (P < 0.05). There were significant statistical differences in the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) between patients with and without SDB, and among mild, moderate, severe, and fluctuating groups (P < 0.05). Patients with moderate-to-severe ACI accompanied by SDB are more likely to experience changes in circadian rhythm and sleep states, which in turn affect cognitive functions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s41105-024-00516-1.

Association between multiple sleep dimensions in obstructive sleep apnea and an early sign of atherosclerosis

STUDY OBJECTIVES

We investigated the associations between multiple sleep dimensions in obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT), an early sign of atherosclerosis, in participants from the Shanghai Sleep Health Study.

METHODS

We performed secondary analysis of SSHS in a group of subjects who underwent ultrasound evaluation from 2018 to 2022. Multiple sleep dimensions were measured using standard polysomnography. CIMT was measured from ultrasound images as an early sign of atherosclerosis. Multivariable-adjusted linear regression and logistic regression analyses were performed to detect associations between sleep traits in OSA and CIMT.

RESULTS

CIMT was found to increase with increasing severity of OSA (P < .001). When adjusted for conventional risk factors, microarousal index and hypoxic burden were positively correlated with CIMT, while slow-wave sleep and mean apnea-hypopnea event duration showed a negative correlation with CIMT (all P < .01). In binary logistic regression analysis, participants with a high microarousal index, less slow-wave sleep, higher hypoxic burden, and shorter mean apnea-hypopnea event duration showed a higher prevalence of thick CIMT with no evidence of interaction by age, sex, or body mass index (P-interaction > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with more severe sleep fragmentation, more severe hypoxemia, and increased arousability were more likely to have increased CIMT after adjusting for potential confounders. It is important to evaluate novel indices of sleep fragmentation, hypoxemia, and arousability in OSA for early detection and prevention of cardiovascular disease, including stroke.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

Registry: Chinese Clinical Trial Registry; Name: Establishing Bio-bank and Cohort of OSAHS in Hospital-based Population; URL: http://www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.aspx?proj=43057; Identifier: ChiCTR1900025714.

CITATION

Huang W, Zhou E, Zhang J, et al. Association between multiple sleep dimensions in obstructive sleep apnea and an early sign of atherosclerosis. J Clin Sleep Med. 2024;20(7):1093-1104.

Increasing and high prevalence of moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea in acute ischemic stroke in Taiwan

STUDY OBJECTIVES

The prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) after stroke is variable, likely due to the time of examination and patient population. Although risk factors for OSA are well established, those for OSA in patients with ischemic stroke have not yet been fully identified. Therefore, we examined the prevalence of OSA and identified risk factors for OSA in the acute stage of ischemic stroke in the Taiwanese population.

METHODS

A total of 103 patients with acute ischemic stroke were screened for OSA by performing polysomnography. The demographic and clinical data, Epworth Sleepiness Scale score, and other stroke risk factors were recorded. Sleep parameters, namely sleep efficiency, sleep stages, apnea-hypopnea index, and oxygen desaturation index were recorded. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine clinical and demographic risk factors for moderate to severe OSA in patients with stroke.

RESULTS

We determined that 91.2% of the patients had OSA in the acute stage of ischemic stroke, and 70% of the patients had moderate to severe OSA. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that patients aged ≥65 years had a significantly higher risk of moderate to severe OSA (adjusted OR: 3.04, 95% CI: 1.20-7.69, p < 0.05) compared with patients with ischemic stroke aged <50 years.

CONCLUSION

OSA is highly prevalent among patients with ischemic stroke in the acute stage, and those aged ≥65 years had a significantly increased risk of moderate to severe OSA. In clinical practice, routine PSG screening of OSA may be necessary among older patients with stroke.

Impact of Sleep Disorders and Disturbed Sleep on Brain Health: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Accumulating evidence supports a link between sleep disorders, disturbed sleep, and adverse brain health, ranging from stroke to subclinical cerebrovascular disease to cognitive outcomes, including the development of Alzheimer disease and Alzheimer disease-related dementias. Sleep disorders such as sleep-disordered breathing (eg, obstructive sleep apnea), and other sleep disturbances, as well, some of which are also considered sleep disorders (eg, insomnia, sleep fragmentation, circadian rhythm disorders, and extreme sleep duration), have been associated with adverse brain health. Understanding the causal role of sleep disorders and disturbances in the development of adverse brain health is complicated by the common development of sleep disorders among individuals with neurodegenerative disease. In addition to the role of sleep disorders in stroke and cerebrovascular injury, mechanistic hypotheses linking sleep with brain health and biomarker data (blood-based, cerebrospinal fluid-based, and imaging) suggest direct links to Alzheimer disease-specific pathology. These potential mechanisms and the increasing understanding of the "glymphatic system," and the recognition of the importance of sleep in poststroke recovery, as well, support a biological basis for the indirect (through the worsening of vascular disease) and direct (through specific effects on neuropathology) connections between sleep disorders and brain health. Given promising evidence for the benefits of treatment and prevention, sleep disorders and disturbances represent potential targets for early treatment that may improve brain health more broadly. In this scientific statement, we discuss the evidence supporting an association between sleep disorders and disturbances and poor brain health ranging from stroke to dementia and opportunities for prevention and early treatment.

Diphenyl Diselenide Attenuates Mitochondrial Damage During Initial Hypoxia and Enhances Resistance to Recurrent Hypoxia

Hypoxia plays a significant role in the development of various cerebral diseases, many of which are associated with the potential risk of recurrence due to mitochondrial damage. Conventional drug treatments are not always effective for hypoxia-related brain diseases, necessitating the exploration of alternative compounds. In this study, we investigated the potential of diphenyl diselenide [(PhSe)2] to ameliorate locomotor impairments and mitigate brain mitochondrial dysfunction in zebrafish subjected to hypoxia. Additionally, we explored whether these improvements could confer resistance to recurrent hypoxia. Through a screening process, an appropriate dose of (PhSe)2 was determined, and animals exposed to hypoxia received a single intraperitoneal injection of 100 mg/kg of the compound or vehicle. After 1 h from the injection, evaluations were conducted on locomotor deficits, (PhSe)2 content, mitochondrial electron transport system, and mitochondrial viability in the brain. The animals were subsequently exposed to recurrent hypoxia to assess the latency time to hypoxia symptoms. The findings revealed that (PhSe)2 effectively crossed the blood-brain barrier, attenuated locomotor deficits induced by hypoxia, and improved brain mitochondrial respiration by modulating complex III. Furthermore, it enhanced mitochondrial viability in the telencephalon, contributing to greater resistance to recurrent hypoxia. These results demonstrate the beneficial effects of (PhSe)2 on both hypoxia and recurrent hypoxia, with cerebral mitochondria being a critical target of its action. Considering the involvement of brain hypoxia in numerous pathologies, (PhSe)2 should be further tested to determine its effectiveness as a potential treatment for hypoxia-related brain diseases.

Effectiveness and feasibility of continuous positive airway pressure in patients with stroke and sleep apnea: a meta-analysis of randomized trials

STUDY OBJECTIVES

This meta-analysis aimed to investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment in stroke patients with sleep apnea.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library were searched from inception until July 28, 2022, for randomized controlled trials comparing the use of CPAP and usual treatment in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack and sleep apnea. The primary outcome measures were the feasibility of CPAP therapy, neurological function, and functional status.

RESULTS

After screening 5,747 studies, 14 studies with 1,065 patients were included in this meta-analysis. Overall, 8 of the 14 studies recorded CPAP use, and the mean CPAP use was 4.47 hours per night (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.85-5.09). The risk ratio of discontinuing CPAP was 1.50 (95% CI: 0.76-2.94; P = .24). Analysis of the neurofunctional scales showed that CPAP treatment improved neurological function (standardized mean difference: 0.28; 95% CI: 0.02-0.53), but there was substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 57%, P = .03) across the studies. CPAP treatment had no significant effect on functional status vs the control (standardized mean difference: 0.25; 95% CI: -0.01 to 0.51), but the studies also had substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 55%, P = .06).

CONCLUSIONS

CPAP treatment is feasible in patients with stroke and sleep apnea and may improve neurological outcomes in these patients. However, this finding should be interpreted with caution because of the substantial heterogeneity of current trials.

CITATION

Fu S, Peng X, Li Y, Yang L, Yu H. Effectiveness and feasibility of continuous positive airway pressure in patients with stroke and sleep apnea: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(9):1685-1696.

Factors influencing recurrence after an ischemic stroke vary by sex

OBJECTIVES

To determine the factors that affect recurrent stroke after acute ischemic stroke, specifically between male and female groups.

METHODS

We examined relative factors associated with recurrent stroke in Chinese patients with first-ever ischemic stroke. LASSO (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) Cox regression were used to determine the predictors of recurrent stroke in the male and female groups. Next, We used Kaplan-Meier survival curves and interactions among these predictors to assess the association between relapse-related factors and recurrent stroke.

RESULTS

During one year of follow-up, we documented 42 incidents of recurrent stroke in males and 15 in females. There was no significant difference in the overall recurrence rate between men and women. We finally identified three variables in males and one variable in females associated considerably with recurrent stroke by LASSO Cox regression. In females, good sleep appeared to be the most significant protective factor against recurrent stroke(hazard ratio [HR], 0.21; 95% CI, 0.08-0.57). In the male group, we found two risk factors: atherosclerotic burden (HR, 2.42; 95% CI, 1.30-4.51) and coronary heart disease (HR, 2.98; 95% CI, 1.16-7.66); and one protective factor: domestic/physical activities (HR, 0.45; 95% CI, 0.24-0.83). We also found an interaction between good sleep and domestic/physical activities in males (Pinteraction = 0.016).

DISCUSSION

Our data indicate that the factors for recurrent stroke may differ by sex. Engaging in domestic/physical activities may substantially lower recurrent strokes in Chinese adult males. And good sleep in females appears to be more important in preventing stroke recurrence.

Sleep disturbances and associated factors amongst stroke survivors in North Central, Nigeria

Introduction

Sleep disturbance is common in persons with stroke and when unrecognised and untreated may hinder rehabilitation efforts and lead to poor functional outcome. It may also result in increased risk for stroke recurrence.

Aim

We investigated the frequency and associated factors of sleep disturbances amongst stroke survivors.

Methodology

One hundred and ten stroke survivors attending the neurology outpatient clinics of two tertiary hospitals, from February 2021 to January 2022, were interviewed after obtaining ethical approval and informed consent. We used a structured questionnaire to obtain their socio-demographic, clinical characteristics and sleep disturbances. Excessive daytime sleepiness was assessed using the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). Data were analysed with statistical significance set at P < 0.05.

Results

Eighty (72.7%) patients were males with a mean age of 61.4 ± 11.8, slightly older than the females (30, 27.3%) with a mean age of 60.9 ± 2.9. Their median follow-up duration was 7.5 months. Majority (84, 76.4%) had ischaemic stroke, and the frequency of sleep disturbances was 37 (33.6%) consisting of insomnia (19, 17.3%), hypersomnia (10, 9.0%), sleep-disordered breathing (5, 4.5%) and sleep-related movement disorder (3, 2.7%), respectively. Using the ESS score, 22 (20.0%) had mild, 10 (9.0%) had moderate and 7 (6.4%) had severe ESS scores, respectively. Univariate analysis showed depression to be significantly associated with ESS (P = 0.006) whereas multivariate analysis revealed age and sex as significant associated factors (P = 0.008 and P = 0.009) of ESS.

Conclusion

More than one-third of participants reported sleep disturbances with depression, age and gender as associated factors.

The impact of sleep quality and its change on the long-term risk of stroke in middle-aged and elderly people: Findings from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing

OBJECTIVE

This study focused on middle-aged and elderly adults (mean age ≥60 years) in England and aimed to evaluate the impact of sleep quality and change in sleep quality on the long-term risk of stroke.

PATIENTS/METHODS

The current prospective study enrolled 6214 participants without stroke from wave 4 (2008-2009) of the English Longitudinal Study Aging (ELSA) dataset. From the ELSA questionnaires, sleep quality scores were calculated and used to evaluate the sleep quality of each participant. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to assess the association between sleep status and stroke risk. Restricted cubic spline (RCS) was employed for the relationship between sleep quality score and the risk of stroke.

RESULTS

During the 8-year follow-up, 130 (2.1%) cases of stroke were recorded. Participants with poor baseline sleep quality had a significantly higher long-term risk of stroke compared with those with good sleep quality (hazard ratio [HR] 2.37, 95% confidence intervals [CI] 1.44, 3.91). For the influence of change in sleep quality on stroke risk, worsened sleep quality was associated with a significant increase in the risk of stroke in the good (HR 2.08, 95% CI, 1.02, 4.26) and intermediate sleep quality groups (HR 2.15, 95% CI, 1.16, 3.98). Moreover, improved sleep quality decreased stroke risk among subjects with poor sleep quality (HR 0.31, 95% CI, 0.15, 0.61).

CONCLUSIONS

Poor and worsened sleep quality is associated with an increased risk of stroke. Emphasis should be placed on improving sleep quality in middle-aged and elderly individuals.

Obstructive sleep apnea: a review for the orthodontist

INTRODUCTION

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) affects an important part of the population and is characterized by recurrent total or partial obstruction of the upper airway (UA) during sleep, negatively affecting the quality of life of patients in the short and long terms, and constituting an important public health problem for the society. The field of expertise of orthodontists is closely related to the UA, placing them in a strategic position to diagnose air passage failures and intervene when necessary. Orthodontists, as health professionals, must know how to recognize respiratory problems and manage them appropriately, when indicated.

OBJECTIVE

Thus, this paper aims to review and critically evaluate the related literature, to provide orthodontists with updated knowledge on the diagnosis and therapy related to OSA. Science and technology are constantly evolving; thus, the literature was also reviewed considering new technologies available in consumer-targeted applications and devices for the diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of sleep-disordered breathing.

Periostin and TNF-α expression levels in peripheral blood of patients with acute cerebral infarction combined with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and their predictive value for clinical prognosis

OBJECTIVE

To detect the expression levels of periostin and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in patients with acute cerebral infarction (ACI) combined with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) and to investigate their predictive value for clinical prognosis.

METHODS

In this case‒control study, serum periostin and TNF-α levels were measured using ELISA, and patients were scored on the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) and modified Rankin Scale (mRS). Receiver operating characteristic curve(ROC) were generated to analyse the effect of peripheral blood periostin and TNF-α levels on poor prognosis.

RESULTS

NIHSS score, mRS score and peripheral blood periostin and TNF-α levels were higher in the observation group than in the control group (P < 0.001); serum periostin and TNF-α levels were positively correlated with the NIHSS score and mRS score (P < 0.001). Serum periostin and TNF-α levels were higher in patients with a poor prognosis than in those with a favourable prognosis (P < 0.001); the area under curve (AUC) values for the diagnosis of poor prognosis based on TNF-α, periostin or both factors were 0.868 (95% CI: 0.781-0.954), 0.834 (95% CI: 0.734-0.934), and 0.875 (95% CI: 0.792 ~ 0.958), with sensitivities of 0.654, 0.846, and 0.654 and specificities of 0.944, 0.750, and 0.917, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Patients with ACI combined with OSAS have elevated peripheral blood periostin and TNF-α levels, and the combination of these two factors has high predictive value for poor prognosis.

Sleep and Stroke: Opening Our Eyes to Current Knowledge of a Key Relationship

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To elucidate the interconnection between sleep and stroke.

RECENT FINDINGS

Growing data support a bidirectional relationship between stroke and sleep. In particular, there is strong evidence that sleep-disordered breathing plays a pivotal role as risk factor and concur to worsening functional outcome. Conversely, for others sleep disorders (e.g., insomnia, restless legs syndrome, periodic limb movements of sleep, REM sleep behavior disorder), the evidence is weak. Moreover, sleep disturbances are highly prevalent also in chronic stroke and concur to worsening quality of life of patients. Promising novel technologies will probably allow, in a near future, to guarantee a screening of commonest sleep disturbances in a larger proportion of patients with stroke. Sleep assessment and management should enter in the routinary evaluation of stroke patients, of both acute and chronic phase. Future research should focus on the efficacy of specific sleep intervention as a therapeutic option for stroke patients.