1
|
Ghosh S, Didi-Cohen S, Cna’ani A, Kontsedalov S, Lebedev G, Tzin V, Ghanim M. Comparative Analysis of Volatiles Emitted from Tomato and Pepper Plants in Response to Infection by Two Whitefly-Transmitted Persistent Viruses. INSECTS 2022; 13:840. [PMID: 36135541 PMCID: PMC9503296 DOI: 10.3390/insects13090840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The whitefly Bemisia tabaci is one of the most important agricultural pests due to its extreme invasiveness, insecticide resistance, and ability to transmit hundreds of plant viruses. Among these, Begomoviruses and recombinant whitefly-borne Poleroviruses are transmitted persistently. Several studies have shown that upon infection, plant viruses manipulate plant-emitted volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which have important roles in communication with insects. In this study, we profiled and compared the VOCs emitted by tomato and pepper plant leaves after infection with the Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) (Bogomoviruses) and the newly discovered Pepper whitefly-borne vein yellows virus (PeWBVYV) (Poleroviruses), respectively. The results identified shared emitted VOCs but also uncovered unique VOC signatures for each virus and for whitefly infestation (i.e., without virus infection) independently. The results suggest that plants have general defense responses; however, they are also able to respond individually to infection with specific viruses or infestation with an insect pest. The results are important to enhance our understanding of virus- and insect vector-induced alteration in the emission of plant VOCs. These volatiles can eventually be used for the management of virus diseases/insect vectors by either monitoring or disrupting insect-plant interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saptarshi Ghosh
- Department of Entomology, ARO, The Volcani Center, HaMaccabim Road 68, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA 30223, USA
| | - Shoshana Didi-Cohen
- French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Be’er Sheva 8499000, Israel
| | - Alon Cna’ani
- French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Be’er Sheva 8499000, Israel
- Department of Food Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-1165 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Svetlana Kontsedalov
- Department of Entomology, ARO, The Volcani Center, HaMaccabim Road 68, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Galina Lebedev
- Department of Entomology, ARO, The Volcani Center, HaMaccabim Road 68, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Vered Tzin
- French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Be’er Sheva 8499000, Israel
| | - Murad Ghanim
- Department of Entomology, ARO, The Volcani Center, HaMaccabim Road 68, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jayawardhana Y, Mayakaduwa SS, Kumarathilaka P, Gamage S, Vithanage M. Municipal solid waste-derived biochar for the removal of benzene from landfill leachate. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2019; 41:1739-1753. [PMID: 28516245 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-017-9973-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The potential of biochar, produced from fibrous organic fractions of municipal solid waste (MSW), for remediation of benzene, one of the frequently found toxic volatile organic compounds in landfill leachate, was investigated in this study based on various environmental conditions such as varying pH, benzene concentration, temperature and time. At the same time, landfill leachate quality parameters were assessed at two different dump sites in Sri Lanka: Gohagoda and Kurunegala. MSW biochar (MSW-BC) was produced by slow temperature pyrolysis at 450 °C, and the physiochemical characteristics of the MSW-BC were characterized. All the leachate samples from the MSW dump sites exceeded the World Health Organization permissible level for benzene (5 µg/L) in water. Removal of benzene was increased with increasing pH, with the highest removal observed at ~pH 9. The maximum adsorption capacity of 576 µg/g was reported at room temperature (~25 °C). Both Freundlich and Langmuir models fitted best with the equilibrium isotherm data, suggesting the involvement of both physisorption and chemisorption mechanisms. Thermodynamic data indicated the feasibility of benzene adsorption and its high favorability at higher temperatures. The values of [Formula: see text] suggested physical interactions between sorbate and sorbent, whereas kinetic data implied a significant contribution of chemisorption. Results obtained from FTIR provided clear evidence of the involvement of functional groups in biochar for benzene adsorption. This study suggests that MSW biochar could be a possible remedy for benzene removal from landfill leachate and at the same time MSW can be a potential source to produce biochar which acts as a prospective material to remediate its pollutants while reducing the volume of waste.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yohan Jayawardhana
- Environmental Chemodynamics Project, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka
| | - S S Mayakaduwa
- Environmental Chemodynamics Project, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka
| | - Prasanna Kumarathilaka
- Environmental Chemodynamics Project, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka
| | - Sewwandi Gamage
- Faculty of Technology, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
| | - Meththika Vithanage
- Environmental Chemodynamics Project, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jayawardhana Y, Gunatilake SR, Mahatantila K, Ginige MP, Vithanage M. Sorptive removal of toluene and m-xylene by municipal solid waste biochar: Simultaneous municipal solid waste management and remediation of volatile organic compounds. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 238:323-330. [PMID: 30870672 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The remediation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from aqueous solution using Municipal solid waste biochar (MSW-BC) has been evaluated. Municipal solid waste was pyrolyzed in an onsite pyrolyzer around 450 °C with a holding time of 30 min for the production of biochar (BC). Physiochemical properties of BC were assessed based on X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) analysis. Adsorption capacities for the VOCs (m-xylene and toluene) were examined by batch sorption experiments. Analysis indicated high loading of m-xylene and toluene in landfill leachates from different dump sites. The FTIR analysis corroborates with the Boehm titration data whereas XRF data demonstrated negligible amounts of trace metals in MSW-BC to be a potential sorbent. Adsorption isotherm exhibited properties of both Langmuir and Freundlich which is indicative of a non-ideal monolayer adsorption process taking place. Langmuir adsorption capacities were high as 850 and 550 μg/g for toluene and m-xylene respectively. The conversion of MSW to a value added product provided a feasible means of solid waste management. The produced MSW-BC was an economical adsorbent which demonstrated a strong ability for removing VOCs. Hence, MSW-BC can be used as a landfill cover or a permeable reactive barrier material to treat MSW leachate. Thus, the conversion of MSW to BC becomes an environmentally friendly and economical means of solid waste remediation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yohan Jayawardhana
- Environmental Chemodynamics Project, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka
| | - Sameera R Gunatilake
- College of Chemical Sciences, Institute of Chemistry Ceylon, Rajagiriya, CO, 10107, Sri Lanka
| | - Kushani Mahatantila
- Chemical and Microbiological Laboratory, Industrial Technology Institute, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka
| | - Maneesha P Ginige
- CSIRO Land and Water, Floreat, Western Australia, WA, 6014, Australia
| | - Meththika Vithanage
- Ecosphere Resilience Research Center, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, CO, 10250, Sri Lanka.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
|
5
|
Zhu F, Pan Z, Hong C, Wang W, Chen X, Xue Z, Yao Y. Analysis of volatile organic compounds in compost samples: A potential tool to determine appropriate composting time. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2016; 58:98-106. [PMID: 27346593 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Changes in volatile organic compound contents in compost samples during pig manure composting were studied using a headspace, solid-phase micro-extraction method (HS-SPME) followed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC/MS). Parameters affecting the SPME procedure were optimized as follows: the coating was carbon molecular sieve/polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS) fiber, the temperature was 60°C and the time was 30min. Under these conditions, 87 compounds were identified from 17 composting samples. Most of the volatile components could only be detected before day 22. However, benzenes, alkanes and alkenes increased and eventually stabilized after day 22. Phenol and acid substances, which are important factors for compost quality, were almost undetectable on day 39 in natural compost (NC) samples and on day 13 in maggot-treated compost (MC) samples. Our results indicate that the approach can be effectively used to determine the composting times by analysis of volatile substances in compost samples. An appropriate composting time not only ensures the quality of compost and reduces the loss of composting material but also reduces the generation of hazardous substances. The appropriate composting times for MC and NC were approximately 22days and 40days, respectively, during the summer in Zhejiang.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fengxiang Zhu
- Institute of Environment, Resource, Soil and Fertilizer, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, PR China
| | - Zaifa Pan
- College of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Chunlai Hong
- Institute of Environment, Resource, Soil and Fertilizer, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, PR China
| | - Weiping Wang
- Institute of Environment, Resource, Soil and Fertilizer, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, PR China
| | - Xiaoyang Chen
- Institute of Environment, Resource, Soil and Fertilizer, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, PR China
| | - Zhiyong Xue
- Institute of Environment, Resource, Soil and Fertilizer, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, PR China.
| | - Yanlai Yao
- Institute of Environment, Resource, Soil and Fertilizer, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Matteucci F, Ercole C, Del Gallo M. A study of chlorinated solvent contamination of the aquifers of an industrial area in central Italy: a possibility of bioremediation. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:924. [PMID: 26388862 PMCID: PMC4556989 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Perchloroethene, trichloroethene, and other chlorinated solvents are widespread groundwater pollutants. They form dense non-aqueous phase liquids that sink through permeable groundwater aquifers until non-permeable zone is reached. In Italy, there are many situations of serious contamination of groundwater that might compromise their use in industry, agriculture, private, as the critical case of a Central Italy valley located in the province of Teramo (“Val Vibrata”), characterized by a significant chlorinated solvents contamination. Data from the various monitoring campaigns that have taken place over time were collected, and new samplings were carried out, resulting in a complete database. The data matrix was processed with a multivariate statistic analysis (in particular principal component analysis, PCA) and was then imported into geographic information system (GIS), to obtain a model of the contamination. A microcosm anaerobic study was utilized to assess the potential for in situ natural or enhanced bioremediation. Most of the microcosms were positive for dechlorination, particularly those inoculated with a mineral medium. This indicate the presence of an active native dechlorinating population in the subsurface, probably inhibited by co-contaminants in the groundwater, or more likely by the absence or lack of nutritional factors. Among the tested electron donors (i.e., yeast extract, lactate, and butyrate) lactate and butyrate enhanced dechlorination of chlorinated compounds. PCA and GIS studies allowed delimiting the contamination; the microcosm study helped to identify the conditions to promote the bioremediation of the area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Matteucci
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology, Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Claudia Ercole
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology, Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Maddalena Del Gallo
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology, Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila L'Aquila, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
Luo T, Fan W, Xu Y. Characterization of Volatile and Semi-Volatile Compounds in Chinese Rice Wines by Headspace Solid Phase Microextraction Followed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/j.2050-0416.2008.tb00323.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
9
|
Preparation of Al2
O3
/TiO2
composite sol-gel fiber for headspace solid-phase microextraction of chlorinated organic solvents from urine. J Sep Sci 2011; 34:1669-74. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201000924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2010] [Revised: 04/24/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
|
10
|
De Crom J, Claeys S, Godayol A, Alonso M, Anticó E, Sanchez JM. Sorbent-packed needle microextraction trap for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes determination in aqueous samples. J Sep Sci 2010; 33:2833-40. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201000213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
11
|
Bernardo MS, Lapa N, Barbosa R, Gonçalves M, Mendes B, Pinto F, Gulyurtlu I. Chemical and ecotoxicological characterization of solid residues produced during the co-pyrolysis of plastics and pine biomass. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2009; 166:309-317. [PMID: 19118946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2008] [Revised: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 11/11/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A mixture of 70% (w/w) pine biomass and 30% (w/w) plastics (mixture of polypropylene, polyethylene, and polystyrene) was subjected to pyrolysis at 400 degrees C, for 15 min, with an initial pressure of 40 MPa. Part of the solid residue produced was subjected to extraction with dichloromethane (DCM). The extracted residue (residue A) and raw residue (residue B) were analyzed by weight loss combustion and submitted to the leaching test ISO/TS 21268-2 using two different leachants: DCM (0.2%, v/v) and calcium chloride (0.001 mol/L). The concentrations of the heavy metals Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, Pb and Cu were determined in the eluates and in the two residues. The eluates were further characterized by determining their pH and the concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX). The presence of other organic contaminants in the eluates was qualitatively evaluated by gas chromatography, coupled with mass spectrometry. An ecotoxicological characterization was also performed by using the bio-indicator Vibrio fischeri. The chemical and ecotoxicological results were analyzed according to the French proposal of Criteria on the Evaluation Methods of Waste Ecotoxicity (CEMWE). Residue A was not considered to be ecotoxic by the ecotoxicological criterion (EC(50) (30 min) >or=10%), but it was considered to be ecotoxic by the chemical criterion (Ni>or=0.5mg/L). Residue B was considered to be ecotoxic by the ecotoxicological criterion: EC(50) (30 min)<or=10%. Besides that, residue B was considered to be hazardous according the European legislation (BTEX concentrations higher than 100 ppb). The results indicate that volatile organic contaminants can be present in sufficient amounts in these residues and their eluates to induce ecotoxicity levels. The extraction of the pyrolysis residue with DCM was an efficient method for removing lighter organic contaminants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria S Bernardo
- New University of Lisbon, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Environmental Biotechnology Research Unit, Ed. Departamental, piso 3, Quinta da Torre, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Tassi F, Montegrossi G, Vaselli O, Liccioli C, Moretti S, Nisi B. Degradation of C2-C15 volatile organic compounds in a landfill cover soil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2009; 407:4513-4525. [PMID: 19446310 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2008] [Revised: 03/23/2009] [Accepted: 04/17/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The composition of non-methane volatile organic compounds (hereafter VOCs) in i) the cover soil, at depths of 30, 50 and 70 cm, and ii) gas recovery wells from Case Passerini landfill site, (Florence, Italy) was determined by GC-MS. The study, based on the analysis of interstitial gases sampled along vertical profiles within the cover soil, was aimed to investigate the VOC behaviour as biogas transits from a reducing to a relatively more oxidizing environment. A total of 48 and 63 different VOCs were identified in the soil and well gases, respectively. Aromatics represent the dominant group (71.5% of total VOC) in soil gases, followed by alkanes (6.8%), ketones (5.7%), organic acids (5.2%), aldehydes (3.0%), esters (2.6%), halogenated compounds (2.1%) and terpenes (1.3%). Cyclics, heterocyclics, S-bearing compounds and phenols are <or=1%. In the wells the VOC composition is characterized by higher concentrations of cyclic (7.6%) and S-bearing compounds (2%) and lower concentrations of O-bearing compounds. The vertical distribution of VOCs in the cover soil shows significant variations: alkanes, aromatics and cyclics decrease at decreasing depth, whereas an inverse trend is displayed by the O-bearing species. Total VOC and CH(4) concentrations at a depth of 30 cm in the soil are comparable, inferring that microbial activity is likely affecting VOCs at a very minor extent with respect to CH(4). According to these considerations, to assess the biogas emission impact, usually carried out on the sole basis of CO(2) and CH(4) emission rates, the physical-chemical behaviour of VOCs in the cover soil, regulating the discharge of these highly contaminant compounds in ambient air, has to be taken into account. The soil vertical distribution of these species can be used to better evaluate the efficiency of oxidative capability of intermediate and final covers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franco Tassi
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira, 4, 50121 Florence, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Koning S, Janssen HG, Brinkman UAT. Modern Methods of Sample Preparation for GC Analysis. Chromatographia 2009. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-008-0937-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
14
|
Comparison of extraction methods for sampling of low molecular compounds in polymers degraded during recycling. Eur Polym J 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2008.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
15
|
Wardencki W, Curyło J, Namieśnik J. Trends in solventless sample preparation techniques for environmental analysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 70:275-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2006] [Accepted: 07/31/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
16
|
Pastore P, Favaro G, Badocco D, Lavagnini I. Headspace Solid Phase Micro Extraction GC-ECD Determination of Volatile Organic Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Soils. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 95:741-56. [PMID: 16398339 DOI: 10.1002/adic.200590088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Soil samples were suspended in a suitable aqueous solvent and a solid phase microextraction (SPME) fibre was used to sample the headspace (HS) for five volatile chlorinated compounds (VOX). Their determination was made by GC-ECD technique in the splitless mode. Preliminary studies on the effects of methanol and of the sand/clay ratio on the fibre extraction were made. Four experimental factors, namely, extraction time, extraction temperature, pH and NaCl%, able to affect distribution of the analytes among the four different phases, were varied in suitable ranges. A multivariate approach applied to the face centred cube (FCC) experimental design, was used to try to optimise the overall sample response. The suitable set of factors found for the determination of chloroform, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethylene, 1,1 ,2-trichloroethane, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, was a compromise among the relevant optimal factor sets of the single analytes. Detection limits of 0.003 ng, 0.022 ng, 0.001 ng, 0.015 ng and 0.002 ng were found respectively for the five cited analytes. The method was successfully used to determine the analyte contents in two real soils sampled in an industrial area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Pastore
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padua, via Marzolo 1, Padova, 35131 Italy.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|