Fabrication of electrochemical sensor for paracetamol based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes and chitosan-copper complex by self-assembly technique

A systematic review on electrochemical sensors for the detection of acetaminophen

Considerable progress has been made in the electrochemical determination of acetaminophen (AP) over the past few decades. Nanomaterials or enzymes as electrode modifiers greatly improve the performance of AP electrochemical sensors. This review focuses on the development potential, detection principles and techniques for the electrochemical analysis of AP. In particular, the design and construction of AP electrochemical sensors are discussed from the perspective of non-enzyme materials (such as nanomaterials, including precious metals, transition metals and non-metals) and enzyme substances (such as aryl acylamidase, polyphenol oxidase and horseradish peroxidase). Moreover, the influencing factors for AP electrochemical sensors and the simultaneous detection of AP and other targets are summarized, and the future prospective of AP electrochemical sensors is outlined. This review provides a reference and guidance for the development and application of electrochemical sensors for AP detection.

An inexpensive paracetamol sensor based on an acid-activated carbon fiber microelectrode

Paracetamol, a contaminant of emerging concern, has been detected in different bodies of water, where it can impact ecological and human health. To quantify this paracetamol, electroanalytical methods have gained support. Thus, the present study developed a simple, inexpensive, and environmentally friendly method for paracetamol quantification using a carbon fiber microelectrode based on commercial carbon fiber. To improve the carbon fiber microelectrode's paracetamol sensitivity and selectivity, it was subjected to an activation process via electrochemical oxidation in an acid medium (H2SO4 or HNO3), using 20 consecutive cycles of cyclic voltammetry. The treated (activated) carbon fiber microelectrode was characterized using scanning electron microscopy and electrochemical techniques, including chronoamperometry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The H2SO4-activated carbon fiber microelectrode exhibited enhanced figures of merit, with a linear dynamic range of paracetamol detection from 0.5 to 11 μmol L-1 and a limit of detection of 0.21 μmol L-1 under optimized conditions. The method was optimized by quantifying paracetamol in commercial pharmaceutical tablets, spiked running tap water, and river water (Pita River, Quito, Ecuador, latitude -0.364955°, longitude -78.404538°); the respective recovery values were 102.89, 103.93, and 112.40%. The results demonstrated an acceptable level of accuracy and the promising applicability of this carbon fiber microelectrode as a sensor to detect paracetamol.

Sonochemical synthesis of lanthanum ferrite nanoparticle-decorated carbon nanotubes for simultaneous electrochemical determination of acetaminophen and dopamine

A new nanocomposite consisting of lanthanum ferrite nanoparticles (LaFeO3 NPs) integrated with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was fabricated via facile sonochemical approach. The engineered nanocomposite was applied to simultaneously determine acetaminophen (ACP) and dopamine (DA) in a binary mixture. The LaFeO3 NPs@CNT probe possesses several advantages such as superior conductivity, large surface area, and more active sites, improving its electrocatalytic activity towards ACP and DA. Under optimized conditions, the anodic peak currents (Ipa) linearly increased with increasing concentration of ACP and DA in the range 0.069-210 µM and 0.15-210 µM, respectively. The sensitivity of LaFeO3 NPs@CNTs/glassy carbon electrode (GCE) for detecting ACP and DA is 7.456 and 5.980 μA·μM-1·cm-2, respectively. The detection limits (S/N = 3) for ACP and DA are 0.02 μM and 0.05 μM, respectively. Advantages of LaFeO3 NPs@CNTs/GCE for the detection of ACP and DA include wide linear ranges, low-detection limits, good selectivity, and long-term stability. The as-fabricated electrode was applied to determine ACP and DA in pharmaceutical formulations and human serum samples with recoveries ranging from 97.7 to 103.3% and an RSD that did not exceed 3.7%, confirming the suitability of the proposed sensor for the determination of ACP and DA in real samples. This study not only presents promising opportunities for enhancing the sensitivity and stability of electrochemical sensors used in the detection of bioanalytes but also significantly contributes to the progress of unique and comprehensive biochemical detection methodologies.

Chitosan-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Pharmaceuticals and Clinical Applications

Chitosan (CTS), a biocompatible and multifunctional material derived from chitin, has caught researchers' attention in electrochemical detection due to its unique properties. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the recent progress and applications of CTS-based electrochemical sensors in the analysis of pharmaceutical products and other types of samples, with a particular focus on the detection of medicinal substances. The review covers studies and developments from 2003 to 2023, highlighting the remarkable properties of CTS, such as biocompatibility, chemical versatility, and large surface area, that make it an excellent candidate for sensor modification. Combining CTS with various nanomaterials significantly enhances the detection capabilities of electrochemical sensors. Various types of CTS-based sensors are analyzed, including those utilizing carbon nanomaterials, metallic nanoparticles, conducting polymers, and molecularly imprinted CTS. These sensors exhibit excellent sensitivity, selectivity, and stability, enabling the precise and reliable detection of medications. The manufacturing strategies used for the preparation of CTS-based sensors are described, the underlying detection mechanisms are elucidated, and the integration of CTS sensors with transducer systems is highlighted. The prospects of CTS-based electrochemical sensors are promising, with opportunities for miniaturization, simultaneous detection, and real-time monitoring applications.

Fe–Decorated Nitrogen–Doped Carbon Nanospheres as an Electrochemical Sensing Platform for the Detection of Acetaminophen

In this work, Fe–decorated nitrogen–doped carbon nanospheres are prepared for electrochemical monitoring of acetaminophen. Via a direct pyrolysis of the melamine–formaldehyde resin spheres, the well–distributed Fe–NC spheres were obtained. The as–prepared Fe–NC possesses enhanced catalysis towards the redox of acetaminophen for abundant active sites and high–speed charge transfer. The effect of loading Fe species on the electrochemical sensing of acetaminophen is investigated in detail. The synergistic effect of nitrogen doping along with the above–mentioned properties is taken advantage of in the fabrication of electrochemical sensors for the acetaminophen determination. Based on the calibration plot, the limits of detection (LOD) were calculated to be 0.026 μM with a linear range from 0–100 μM. Additionally satisfactory repeatability, stability, and selectivity are obtained.

A wireless smartphone-based "tap-and-detect" formaldehyde sensor with disposable nano-palladium grafted laser-induced graphene (nanoPd@LIG) electrodes

We developed a fully integrated smart sensing device for on-site testing of food to detect trace formaldehyde (FA). A nano-palladium grafted laser-induced graphene (nanoPd@LIG) composite was synthesized by one-step laser irradiation of a Pd²⁺-chitosan-polyimide precursor. The composite was synthesized in the form of a three-electrode sensor on a polymer substrate. The electrochemical properties and morphology of the fabricated composite were characterized and the electrochemical kinetics of FA oxidation at the nanoPd@LIG electrode were investigated. The nanoPd@LIG electrode was combined with a smart electrochemical sensing (SES) device to determine FA electrochemically. The proposed SES device uses near field communication (NFC) to receive power and transfer data between a smartphone interface and a battery-free sensor. The proposed FA sensor exhibited a linear detection range from 0.01 to 4.0 mM, a limit of detection of 6.4 μM, good reproducibility (RSDs between 2.0 and 10.1%) and good anti-interference properties for FA detection. The proposed system was used to detect FA in real food samples and the results correlated well with the results from a commercial potentiostat and a spectrophotometric analysis.

Electrocatalytic Platform Based on Silver-Doped Sugar Apple-like Cupric Oxide Embedded Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Nanomolar Detection of Acetaminophen (APAP)

Economical and nanomolar-level determination of the analgesic drug, acetaminophen (APAP), is reported in this work. A novel ternary nanocomposite based on silver-doped sugar apple-like cupric oxide (CuO)-decorated amine-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (fCNTs) was sonochemically prepared. CuO nanoparticles were synthesized based on the ascorbic acid-mediated low-temperature method, and sidewall functionalization of CNTs was carried out. Important characterizations of the synthesized materials were analyzed using SEM, TEM, HAADF-STEM, elemental mapping, EDX, lattice fringes, SAED pattern, XRD, EIS, UV-Vis, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and FTIR. It was noted the sonochemically prepared nanocomposite diligently fabricated on screen-printed carbon electrode showcased outstanding electrocatalytic performance towards APAP determination. The APAP sensor exhibited ultra-low limit of detection of 4 nM, wide linear concentration ranges of 0.02-3.77 and 3.77-90.02 μM, and high sensitivity of 30.45 μA μM^-1 cm^-2. Moreover, further evaluation of the sensor's performance based on electrochemical experiments showcased outstanding selectivity, stability, reproducibility, and repeatability. Further, excellent practical feasibility of the proposed APAP sensor was affirmed with excellent recovery larger than 96.86% and a maximum RSD of 3.67%.

Flexible Electrochemical Platform Coupled with In Situ Prepared Synthetic Receptors for Sensitive Detection of Bisphenol A

A flexible electrochemical sensor based on the carbon felt (CF) functionalized with Bisphenol A (BPA) synthetic receptors was developed. The artificial Bisphenol A receptors were grafted on the CF by a simple thermal polymerization molecular imprinting process. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electrochemical characterizations were used to analyze the receptors. Characterization results demonstrated that the Bisphenol A synthetic receptors successfully formed on the CFs surface. Because the synthetic receptor and the porous CFs were successfully combined, the sensor displayed a better current response once Bisphenol A was identified. The sensor's linear range was determined to be from 0.5 to 8.0 nM and 10.0 to 300.0 nM, with a detection limit of 0.36 nM. Even after being bent and stretched repeatedly, the electrode's performance was unaffected, demonstrating the robustness, adaptability and viability of installing the sensor on flat or curved surfaces for on-site detection. The designed electrochemical sensor has been used successfully to identify Bisphenol A in milk samples with satisfactory results. This work provided a promising platform for the design of implantable, portable and miniaturized sensors.

Nitrogen-doped carbon@TiO2 double-shelled hollow spheres as an electrochemical sensor for simultaneous determination of dopamine and paracetamol in human serum and saliva

As the most commonly used antipyretic and analgesic drug, paracetamol (PA) coexists with neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) in real biological samples. Their simultaneous determination is extremely important for human health, but they also interfere with each other. In order to improve the conductivity, adsorption affinity, sensitivity, and selectivity of TiO2-based electrochemical sensor, N-doped carbon@TiO2 double-shelled hollow sphere (H-C/N@TiO2) is designed and synthesized by simple alcoholic and hydrothermal method, using polystyrene sphere (PS) as a template. Meanwhile, TiO2 hollow spheres (H-TiO2) or N-doped carbon hollow spheres (H-C/N) are also prepared by the same method. H-C/N@TiO2 has good conductivity, charge separation, and the highly enhanced and stable current responses for the detection of PA and DA. The detection limit and linear range are 50.0 nmol/L and 0.3-50 μmol/L for PA, 40.0 nmol/L and 0.3-50 μmol/L for DA, respectively, which are better than those of carbon-based sensors. Moreover, this electrochemical sensor, with high selectivity, strong anti-interference, high reliability, and long time durability, can be used for the simultaneous detection of PA and DA in human blood serum and saliva. The high electrochemical performance of H-C/N@TiO2 is attributed to the multi-functional combination of different layers, because of good conductivity, absorption and electrons transfer ability from in-situ N-doped carbon and electrocatalytic activity from TiO2.

Hydrogel tapes for fault-tolerant strong wet adhesion

Fast and strong bio-adhesives are in high demand for many biomedical applications, including closing wounds in surgeries, fixing implantable devices, and haemostasis. However, most strong bio-adhesives rely on the instant formation of irreversible covalent crosslinks to provide strong surface binding. Repositioning misplaced adhesives during surgical operations may cause severe secondary damage to tissues. Here, we report hydrogel tapes that can form strong physical interactions with tissues in seconds and gradually form covalent bonds in hours. This timescale-dependent adhesion mechanism allows instant and robust wet adhesion to be combined with fault-tolerant convenient surgical operations. Specifically, inspired by the catechol chemistry discovered in mussel foot proteins, we develop an electrical oxidation approach to controllably oxidize catechol to catecholquinone, which reacts slowly with amino groups on the tissue surface. We demonstrate that the tapes show fast and reversible adhesion at the initial stage and ultrastrong adhesion after the formation of covalent linkages over hours for various tissues and electronic devices. Given that the hydrogel tapes are biocompatible, easy to use, and robust for bio-adhesion, we anticipate that they may find broad biomedical and clinical applications.

Ionic liquid functionalized 3D graphene-carbon nanotubes‒AuPd nanoparticles‒molecularly imprinted copolymer based paracetamol electrochemical sensor: Preparation, characterization and application

An innovative electrochemical sensor for paracetamol (PCM) determination was fabricated by electropolymerization imprinting on three-dimension (3D) AuPd nanoparticles‒ionic liquid (IL) functionalized graphene‒carbon nanotubes nanocomposite (AuPd/GN-CNTs-IL) modified glassy carbon electrode. The GN-CNTs supported AuPd alloy nanoparticles were prepared via one-pot hydrothermal method in the presence of IL (i.e. 1-hydroxyethyl-3-methyl imidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl] imide), which not only promoted the formation of small AuPd alloy nanoparticles, but also acted as "spacer" to prevent the π-π stacking and aggregation of graphene sheets and carbon nanotubes. The resulting composite had large surface area and high electrocatalysis. The PCM imprinted poly(carbazole-co-pyrrole) exhibited good recognition to PCM and had high stability. Based on the synergic effect of PCM imprinted copolymer and 3D AuPd/GN-CNTs-IL nanocomposite, a highly selective and sensitive electrochemical sensor was established. It presented a good linear relationship from 0.10 to 10 μM with a low limit of detection of 50 nM (S/N = 3). The sensor could be applied to the detection of PCM in biological samples, with acceptable recoveries (84.5%-102%). In addition, it was successfully used to monitor the concentration of PCM in urine from a patient with fever cold.

Preparation of a chemically stable metal–organic framework and multi-walled carbon nanotube composite as a high-performance electrocatalyst for the detection of lead

The MWCNTs@UiO-66-NH₂ composite was synthesized and used as a highly sensitive and robust electrochemical sensor for lead detection.

Simultaneous Voltammetric Detection of Acetaminophen and Caffeine Base on Cassava Starch—Fe3O4 Nanoparticles Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode

The new molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) membrane based on cassava starch—Fe3O4—was developed to detect acetaminophen and caffeine simultaneously with the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) method. Cassava starch was reacted with sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as a crosslinking agent, while acetaminophen and caffeine were added as templates. The Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the composite were added to increase the sensor’s sensitivity. The experimental results show that the ratio between cassava starch:STPP:acetaminophen/caffeine in the mixture for MIP membranes influences the sensitivity of the sensor obtained. MIP membranes with the best sensitivity is produced at a mixture ratio of 2:2:1. The sensor performance is also affected by the pH of the solution and the type of buffer solution used. The sensor works very well at pH 2 in PB solution. Sensors produced from GCE modified with MIP membrane from cassava starch—Fe3O4 with acetaminophen and caffeine as templates have linear range concentrations, respectively, at 50–2000 µM and 50–900 µM. Sensor sensitivity was 0.5306 A/M against acetaminophen and 0.4314 A/M against caffeine with Limit of Detection (LoD), respectively, 16 and 23 µM. Sensor selectivity and sensitivity are better than those without MIP and can be applied for the determination of the content of acetaminophen in headache medicine, with an accuracy of 96–99% and with Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) 0.9–2.56%.

Biosensors in Drug Discovery and Drug Analysis

Background:

The determination of drugs in pharmaceutical formulations and human biologic fluids is important for pharmaceutical and medical sciences. Successful analysis requires low sensitivity, high selectivity and minimum interference effects. Current analytical methods can detect drugs at very low levels but these methods require long sample preparation steps, extraction prior to analysis, highly trained technical staff and high-cost instruments. Biosensors offer several advantages such as short analysis time, high sensitivity, real-time analysis, low-cost instruments, and short pretreatment steps over traditional techniques. Biosensors allow quantification not only of the active component in pharmaceutical formulations, but also the degradation products and metabolites in biological fluids. The present review gives comprehensive information on the application of biosensors for drug discovery and analysis. Moreover, this review focuses on the fabrication of these biosensors.

Methods:

Biosensors can be classified as the utilized bioreceptor and the signal transduction mechanism. The classification based on signal transductions includes electrochemical optical, thermal or acoustic. Electrochemical and optic transducers are mostly utilized transducers used for drug analysis. There are many biological recognition elements, such as enzymes, antibodies, cells that have been used in fabricating of biosensors. Aptamers and antibodies are the most widely used recognition elements for the screening of the drugs. Electrochemical sensors and biosensors have several advantages such as low detection limits, a wide linear response range, good stability and reproducibility. Optical biosensors have several advantages such as direct, real-time and label-free detection of many biological and chemical substances, high specificity, sensitivity, small size and low cost. Modified electrodes enhance sensitivity of the electrodes to develop a new biosensor with desired features. Chemically modified electrodes have gained attention in drug analysis owing to low background current, wide potential window range, simple surface renewal, low detection limit and low cost. Modified electrodes produced by modifying of a solid surface electrode via different materials (carbonaceous materials, metal nanoparticles, polymer, biomolecules) immobilization. Recent advances in nanotechnology offer opportunities to design and construct biosensors. Unique features of nanomaterials provide many advantages in the fabrication of biosensors. Nanomaterials have controllable chemical structures, large surface to volume ratios, functional groups on their surface. To develop proteininorganic hybrid nanomaterials, four preparation methods have been used. These methods are immobilization, conjugation, crosslinking and self-assembly. In the present manuscript, applications of different biosensors, fabricated by using several materials, for drug analysis are reviewed. The biosensing strategies are investigated and discussed in detail.

Results:

Several analytical techniques such as chromatography, spectroscopy, radiometry, immunoassays and electrochemistry have been used for drug analysis and quantification. Methods based on chromatography require timeconsuming procedure, long sample-preparation steps, expensive instruments and trained staff. Compared to chromatographic methods, immunoassays have simple protocols and lower cost. Electrochemical measurements have many advantages over traditional chemical analyses and give information about drug quantity, metabolic fate of drugs, and pharmacological activity. Moreover, the electroanalytical methods are useful to determine drugs sensitively and selectivity. Additionally, these methods decrease analysis cost and require low-cost instruments and simple sample pretreatment steps.

Conclusion:

In recent years, drug analyses are performed using traditional techniques. These techniques have a good detection limit, but they have some limitations such as long analysis time, expensive device and experienced personnel requirement. Increased demand for practical and low-cost analytical techniques biosensor has gained interest for drug determinations in medical sciences. Biosensors are unique and successful devices when compared to traditional techniques. For drug determination, different electrode modification materials and different biorecognition elements are used for biosensor construction. Several biosensor construction strategies have been developed to enhance the biosensor performance. With the considerable progress in electrode surface modification, promotes the selectivity of the biosensor, decreases the production cost and provides miniaturization. In the next years, advances in technology will provide low cost, sensitive, selective biosensors for drug analysis in drug formulations and biological samples.

Design of Optical Sensor Membrane Based on Polymer Poly(methyl methacrylate) for Paracetamol Detection in Traditional Herbal Medicine

Generally, regulation states that herbal medicines are remedies containing plants or preparation of plants as active ingredients only. Paracetamol is one of the drugs that is frequently added in herbal medicine to enhance the effect as an analgesic. The government regulation disallows chemical drugs contained in herbal medicine due to the toxic effect of uncontrolled consumption. On this study, the optical sensor membrane from polymer poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) was synthesized by phase inversion method and was used to detect paracetamol in herbal medicine. PMMA was made in three different concentrations 5%, 7.5%, and 10% and was mixed with ferric chloride (FeCl3), Folin-Ciocalteu, and Nessler reagent as specific colorimetric reagents for paracetamol detection, with a ratio of solvent:reagent was 6:4; 7:3; and 8:2. The result of the experiment shows that PMMA-FeCl3 7.5% (7:3), PMMA-Folin 5% (6:4), and PMMA-Nessler 5% (6:4) give the best performance for paracetamol detection. Real herbal medicine samples were analyzed to confirm the practical application of this sensor, and the result shows good agreement with UV-Vis data. The results show that optical sensor membrane which has been developed can be used as new detection method of paracetamol for community application.

Copper Oxide Chitosan Nanocomposite: Characterization and Application in Non-Enzymatic Hydrogen Peroxide Sensing

Electrochemical dissolution of metallic copper into slightly acidic aqueous solutions of chitosan yields a clear and stable dispersion of Copper Oxide nanoparticles into the organic polymer host. The electrochemically synthesized chitosan:CuOx nanocomposite is characterized by means of spectrophotometry, frequency domain electrical measurements and morphological analysis. Solid state electrochemical cells having pure chitosan as the electrolyte and using chitosan:CuOx as the electrode, are developed and characterized by means of electrical measurements performed in the ±1 V voltage window. The current-voltage loops of the cells, measured in deionized water, are found to reversibly change in response to hydrogen peroxide added to the water in 0.2 μM subsequent steps. Such changes, clearly distinguishable from changes recorded in response to other analytes, can be exploited in order to develop a hydrogen peroxide sensor able to work without the need for any supporting electrolyte.

Electrochemical carbon based nanosensors: A promising tool in pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis

Nanotechnology has become very popular in the sensor fields in recent times. It is thought that the utilization of such technologies, as well as the use of nanosized materials, could well have beneficial effects for the performance of sensors. Nano-sized materials have been shown to have a number of novel and interesting physical and chemical properties. Low-dimensional nanometer-sized materials and systems have defined a new research area in condensed-matter physics within past decades. Apart from the aforesaid categories of materials, there exist various materials of different types for fabricating nanosensors. Carbon is called as a unique element, due to its magnificent applications in many areas. Carbon is an astonishing element that can be found many forms including graphite, diamond, fullerenes, and graphene. This review provides an overview of some of the important and recent developments brought about by the application of carbon based nanostructures to nanotechnology for both chemical and biological sensor development and their application in pharmaceutical and biomedical area.

One-pot electrochemical preparation of copper species immobilized poly(o-aminophenol)/MWCNT composite with excellent electrocatalytic activity for use as an H2O2 sensor

Redox activity of copper species immobilized poly(o-aminophenol)/multi-walled carbon nanotube for direct electrocatalysis towards detection of H₂O₂.

Engineered Carbon-Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Biomolecules

The study of electrochemical behavior of bioactive molecules has become one of the most rapidly developing scientific fields. Biotechnology and biomedical engineering fields have a vested interest in constructing more precise and accurate voltammetric/amperometric biosensors. One rapidly growing area of biosensor design involves incorporation of carbon-based nanomaterials in working electrodes, such as one-dimensional carbon nanotubes, two-dimensional graphene, and graphene oxide. In this review article, we give a brief overview describing the voltammetric techniques and how these techniques are applied in biosensing, as well as the details surrounding important biosensing concepts of sensitivity and limits of detection. Building on these important concepts, we show how the sensitivity and limit of detection can be tuned by including carbon-based nanomaterials in the fabrication of biosensors. The sensing of biomolecules including glucose, dopamine, proteins, enzymes, uric acid, DNA, RNA, and H2O2 traditionally employs enzymes in detection; however, these enzymes denature easily, and as such, enzymeless methods are highly desired. Here we draw an important distinction between enzymeless and enzyme-containing carbon-nanomaterial-based biosensors. The review ends with an outlook of future concepts that can be employed in biosensor fabrication, as well as limitations of already proposed materials and how such sensing can be enhanced. As such, this review can act as a roadmap to guide researchers toward concepts that can be employed in the design of next generation biosensors, while also highlighting the current advancements in the field.