Food raw materials and food production occurrences of deoxynivalenol in different regions

Protective Effects of Carbonated Chitosan Montmorillonite on Vomitoxin-Induced Intestinal Inflammation

Exposure to vomitoxin (DON) can negatively impact the intestinal health of livestock and poultry, leading to compromised nutrient absorption and utilization, resulting in slowed growth and reduced production efficiency. In this study, we synthesized carbonated chitosan montmorillonite intercalation complexes (CCM) through solution precipitation. The successful formation of intercalation complexes was confirmed by examining functional groups and surface features using infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. To assess the impact of CCM on DON-infected mice, we established an experimental mouse model of jejunal inflammation induced by DON infection. We analyzed the effects of CCM on blood biochemical and conventional indices, jejunal inflammatory factors, pathological changes, and the expression of proteins in the MAPK pathways in DON-infected mice. Our results indicate that CCM effectively mitigates the adverse effects of DON on growth performance, jejunal injury, and the inflammatory response in mice. CCM supplementation alleviated the negative effects of DON infection on growth performance and reduced intestinal inflammation in mice. Moreover, CCM supplementation successfully inhibited the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway induced by DON. These findings suggest that the mitigating effect of CCM on DON-induced inflammatory injury in the murine jejunum is closely linked to the regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway.

Low dose dietary contamination with deoxynivalenol mycotoxin exacerbates enteritis and colorectal cancer in mice

BACKGROUND

The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a frequent contaminant of grain and cereal products worldwide. Exposure to DON can cause gastrointestinal inflammation, disturb gut barrier function, and induce gut dysbiosis in vivo under basal conditions, but little is known about the effects of DON ingestion in individuals with pre-existing gastrointestinal disease.

OBJECTIVES

Mice were orally exposed to 10 and 100 μg/kg bw/day of DON, corresponding to 10 to 100-fold human tolerable daily intake concentrations, and to the translation in mice of current human daily intake. The effects of DON exposure were explored under steady-state conditions, and in murine models of enteritis and colorectal cancer (CRC).

RESULTS

After 8 days of DON exposure, an increase of histomorphological and molecular parameters of epithelial proliferation were observed in normal mice, from the duodenum to the colon. The same exposure in a murine model of indomethacin-induced enteritis led to exacerbation of lesion development and induction of ileal cytokines. DON exposure also worsened the development of colitis-associated CRC in mice as shown by increases in endoscopic and histological colitis scores, tumor grades, and histological hyperplasia. In colon of DON-exposed mice, upstream and downstream ERK signaling genes were upregulated including Mapk1, Mapk3, Map 2k1, Map2k2 core ERK pathway effectors, and Bcl2 and Bcl2l1 antiapoptotic genes. The effects observed in the CRC model were associated with alterations in cecal microbiota taxonomic composition and metabolism of bacterial fucose and rhamnose. Strong Spearman's correlations were revealed between the relative abundance of the changed bacterial genera and CRC-related variables.

DISCUSSION

Ingestion of DON mycotoxin at concentrations representative of human real-world exposure worsened the development of indomethacin-induced enteritis and colitis-associated CRC in mice. Our results suggest that even at low doses, which are currently tolerated in the human diet, DON could promote the development of intestinal inflammatory diseases and CRC.

Exposure Assessment to Deoxynivalenol of Children over 3 Years Deriving from the Consumption of Processed Wheat-Based Products Produced from a Dedicated Flour

Wheat-based products are largely consumed by children worldwide. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is known for its acute and chronic toxicity and is the most common contaminant of cereal grains. Since no legal limits are set for DON in wheat-based products and specific foods intended for children over 3 years on the market, a high risk of overexposure to this contaminant may emerge. The main objective of the study, conducted in 2018-2019, was to produce a wheat flour intended for children over three years, characterized by a high level of safety in terms of DON content, to be used to produce wheat-derived products. The dedicated flour was produced by adopting tailored procedures like the selection of wheat suppliers, the predetermination of the safe contamination of DON in the final products, and the evaluation of the transfer rate from the wheat flour to derived products (bread, breadsticks, biscuits, plumcake, and focaccia). The results showed that the daily exposure of children was considered to be safe, in a range between 7% (biscuits) and 67% (bread) of DON tolerable daily intake (TDI) and that only by producing a flour characterized by DON levels much lower than those in force, can "safe" products be marketed.

Global distribution, toxicity to humans and animals, biodegradation, and nutritional mitigation of deoxynivalenol: A review

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the main types of B trichothecenes, and it causes health-related issues in humans and animals and imposes considerable challenges to food and feed safety globally each year. This review investigates the global hazards of DON, describes the occurrence of DON in food and feed in different countries, and systematically uncovers the mechanisms of the various toxic effects of DON. For DON pollution, many treatments have been reported on the degradation of DON, and each of the treatments has different degradation efficacies and degrades DON by a distinct mechanism. These treatments include physical, chemical, and biological methods and mitigation strategies. Biodegradation methods include microorganisms, enzymes, and biological antifungal agents, which are of great research significance in food processing because of their high efficiency, low environmental hazards, and drug resistance. And we also reviewed the mechanisms of biodegradation methods of DON, the adsorption and antagonism effects of microorganisms, and the different chemical transformation mechanisms of enzymes. Moreover, nutritional mitigation including common nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and microelements) and plant extracts was discussed in this review, and the mitigation mechanism of DON toxicity was elaborated from the biochemical point of view. These findings help explore various approaches to achieve the best efficiency and applicability, overcome DON pollution worldwide, ensure the sustainability and safety of food processing, and explore potential therapeutic options with the ability to reduce the deleterious effects of DON in humans and animals.

Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem-Cell-Derived Exosomes Ameliorate Deoxynivalenol-Induced Mice Liver Damage

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a kind of Fusarium toxin that can cause a variety of toxic effects. DON is mainly metabolized and detoxified by the liver. When the concentration of DON exceeds the metabolic capacity of the liver, it will trigger acute or chronic damage to the liver tissue. Previous studies demonstrated that bone marrow mesenchymal stem-cell-secreted exosomes (BMSC-exos) reduce liver injury. Therefore, we issue a hypothesis that in vitro-cultured rat BMSC-secreted exos could ameliorate liver damage after 2 mg/kg bw/day of DON exposure. In total, 144 lipids were identified in BMEC-exos, including high polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels. BMSC-exos treatment alleviated liver pathological changes and decreased levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, inflammatory factors interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and lipid peroxidation. Otherwise, low or high BMSC-exos treatment obviously changes DON-induced hepatic oxylipin patterns. According to the results from our correlation network analysis, Pearson correlation coefficient analysis, and hierarchical clustering analysis, the top 10% oxidized lipids can be classified into two categories: one that was positively correlated with copper–zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn SOD) and another that was positively correlated with liver injury indicators. Altogether, BMSC-exos administration maintained normal liver function and reduced oxidative damage in liver tissue. Moreover, it could also significantly change the oxylipin profiles under DON conditions.

An Efficient HPLC-PDA Coupled With Supel™ Tox DON SPE Approach for the Analysis of Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Cereal Grains and Feedstuffs in Jiangxi Province

Deoxynivalenol (DON) was commonly found in grains and feedstuffs, which can cause human chronic diseases. In this study, a quick and reliable method was developed for the determination of DON in grains and feedstuffs in Jiangxi Province market. The sample was extracted with acetonitrile-water (84:16, v/v), then purified by Supel™ Tox DON SPE column, and detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results showed that the calibration curve of DON showed good linearity in the range of 0.01-10.0 μg/mL, and the correlation coefficient R² = 0.9999. The recovery of DON in the spiked maize sample was 94.8-98.5% by spiking with DON at 0.2 µg/g, 1.0 µg/g, and 2.0 µg/g. The RSD was between 2.5 and 3.3%. This method was used to analyze 120 samples, including 90 grains and 30 feedstuffs, collected from the Jiangxi Province market. The results showed that 81 samples of grains were positive with 90.0% positive rates, and 30 samples of feedstuff were positive with 100% positive rates. Maximum concentration of DON was 0.7 μg/g in oat and 6.9 μg/g in wheat feedstuffs, respectively. Fortunately, the positive samples of grains were safe levels in comparison with National standards for food safety limits of mycotoxins in food (1.0 μg/g), while, the feedstuff of oats was over the Maximum Guideline Level of 16.7% (the Maximum Residue Limit, MRL is 5.0 μg/g). The results of this study about current DON pollution in the grains and feedstuffs on the Jiangxi Province market have not been previously reported.

Current Review of Mycotoxin Biodegradation and Bioadsorption: Microorganisms, Mechanisms, and Main Important Applications

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi. Food/feed contamination by mycotoxins is a great threat to food safety. The contamination can occur along the food chain and can cause many diseases in humans and animals, and it also can cause economic losses. Many detoxification methods, including physical, chemical, and biological techniques, have been established to eliminate mycotoxins in food/feed. The biological method, with mycotoxin detoxification by microorganisms, is reliable, efficient, less costly, and easy to use compared with physical and chemical ones. However, it is important to discover the metabolite's toxicity resulting from mycotoxin biodegradation. These compounds can be less or more toxic than the parent. On the other hand, mechanisms involved in a mycotoxin's biological control remain still unclear. Mostly, there is little information about the method used by microorganisms to control mycotoxins. Therefore, this article presents an overview of the most toxic mycotoxins and the different microorganisms that have a mycotoxin detoxification ability. At the same time, different screening methods for degradation compound elucidation are given. In addition, the review summarizes mechanisms of mycotoxin biodegradation and gives some applications.

Recent Progress in Rapid Determination of Mycotoxins Based on Emerging Biorecognition Molecules: A Review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species, which pose significant risk to humans and livestock. The mycotoxins which are produced from Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium are considered most important and therefore regulated in food- and feedstuffs. Analyses are predominantly performed by official laboratory methods in centralized labs by expert technicians. There is an urgent demand for new low-cost, easy-to-use, and portable analytical devices for rapid on-site determination. Most significant advances were realized in the field bioanalytical techniques based on molecular recognition. This review aims to discuss recent progress in the generation of native biomolecules and new bioinspired materials towards mycotoxins for the development of reliable bioreceptor-based analytical methods. After brief presentation of basic knowledge regarding characteristics of most important mycotoxins, the generation, benefits, and limitations of present and emerging biorecognition molecules, such as polyclonal (pAb), monoclonal (mAb), recombinant antibodies (rAb), aptamers, short peptides, and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), are discussed. Hereinafter, the use of binders in different areas of application, including sample preparation, microplate- and tube-based assays, lateral flow devices, and biosensors, is highlighted. Special focus, on a global scale, is placed on commercial availability of single receptor molecules, test-kits, and biosensor platforms using multiplexed bead-based suspension assays and planar biochip arrays. Future outlook is given with special emphasis on new challenges, such as increasing use of rAb based on synthetic and naïve antibody libraries to renounce animal immunization, multiple-analyte test-kits and high-throughput multiplexing, and determination of masked mycotoxins, including stereoisomeric degradation products.

Ruscogenin protects against deoxynivalenol-Induced hepatic injury by inhibiting oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis through the Nrf2 signaling pathway: An In vitro study

Background

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene mycotoxin with demonstrated cytotoxicity in several cell lines and animals, primarily owing to inflammation and reactive oxygen species accumulation. Ruscogenin (RGN), a steroidal sapogenin of Radix Ophiopogon japonicus, has significant anti-thrombotic/anti-inflammatory effects.

Objective:

The aim of this study was to assess the protective role of RGN against DON-induced oxidative stress, which occurs through the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway and is regulated by phosphoinositide 3-kinases/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT).

Methods:

The effects were examined using the HepG2 cell line. RGN and DON were suspended in serum-free medium. Cells were seeded onto plates, and then RGN, DON, or both were added over 24 h in triplicates for each group.

Results:

RGN conferred protection against DON-exhibited cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells. RGN pretreatment downregulated the expression of DON-induced TNF-α and COX-2 and the formation of reactive oxygen species in a dose-dependent manner. RGN upregulated the expression of Nrf2 and its antioxidant proteins as well as mRNA levels of HO-1/NQO-1/HO-1/Nrf2. Similarly, treatment with DON + RGN resulted in upregulation of the pI3K/pAKT signaling pathway in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, RGN was also found to inhibit the DON-induced apoptosis by upregulating the levels of cleaved proteins and downregulating the expression of Bcl2.

Conclusion:

The study demonstrates that RGN suppresses hepatic cell injury induced by oxidative stress through Nrf2 via activation of the pI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

The NO-dependent caspase signaling pathway is a target of deoxynivalenol in growth inhibition in vitro

DON is commonly found in foods and feeds; it presents health risks, especially an increase of growth inhibition in humans, particularly infants and young children. However, there are relatively few research studies devoted to the mechanism of DON-mediated growth retardation. Interestingly, our results showed that DON does not cause any significant production of ROS but results in a persistent and significant release of NO with iNOS increasing activity, mitochondrial ultrastructural changes and decreasing ΔΨm. Moreover, the significant decreases in GH production and secretion induced by DON were dose-dependent, accompanied by an increase of caspase 3, 8 and 9, IL-11, IL-lβ and GHRH. NO scavenging agent (haemoglobin) and free radical scavenging agent (N-acetylcysteine) partially reversed mitochondrial damage, and Z-VAD-FMK increased the levels of GH and decreased the levels of caspase 3, 8 and 9, while haemoglobin decreased the levels of caspase 3, 8 and 9, indicating that NO is the primary target of DON-mediated inhibition. Present research study firstly demonstrated that NO is a key mediator of DON-induced growth inhibition and plays critical roles in the interference of GH transcription and synthesis. The current research is conducive to future research on the molecular mechanisms of DON-induced growth inhibition in humans, especially children.

The Protective Effect of Heme Oxygenase-1 on Liver Injury Caused by DON-Induced Oxidative Stress and Cytotoxicity

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a kind of Fusarium toxin that can cause a variety of toxic effects. Oxidative stress and DNA damage play a critical role in the toxicity of DON. However, previous studies focused more on acute toxicity in vivo/vitro models and lacked subchronic toxicity study in vivo. The potentially harmful effect of DON given at doses comparable to the daily human consumption in target organs, especially the liver, which is the main detoxification organ of DON, is also still not fully understood. Otherwise, Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has also reduced cell damage under the DON condition according to our previous study. Therefore, we used a rodent model that mimicked daily human exposure to DON and further explored its mechanism of toxic effects on liver tissue and Hepa 1–6 cell line. We also used adeno-associated virus (AAV)-modified HO-1 expressing by tail vein injection and constructed lentivirus-Hepa 1–6 cell line for mimicking HO-1 protective ability under the DON condition. The main results showed that both 30 d and 90 d exposures of DON could cause low-grade inflammatory infiltration around hepatic centrilobular veins. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) and 8-hydroxy-2 deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) increased during DON exposure, indicating oxidation stress and DNA damage. Significantly, AAV-mediated liver-specific overexpression of HO-1 reduced DON-induced liver damage and indirectly protected the abilities of antioxidant enzyme/DNA damage repair system, while AAV-mediated silence of HO-1 produced the opposite effect. In addition, we found that overexpression of HO-1 could enhance autophagy and combined it with an antioxidant enzyme/DNA damage repair system to inhibit DON-induced hepatocyte damage. Altogether, these data suggest that HO-1 reduces the oxidative stress and DNA damage caused by DON sub-chronic exposure through maintaining DNA repair, antioxidant activity, as well as autophagy.

Deoxynivalenol exposure induces liver damage in mice: Inflammation and immune responses, oxidative stress, and protective effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG

Deoxynivalenol (DON), one of the most common environmental pollutants, substantially affects human and animal health. Much attention has been paid to the ability of probiotics to modulate inflammation and immune responses. In this work, the toxic effects of DON on the liver and the protective effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) were investigated. We treated mice with oral gavage of DON (2.4 mg/kg bw/day), LGG (1 × 10⁹ CFU/mouse/day) or both for 28 days. The results showed that DON triggered liver inflammation, reflected by pathological changes and liver function damage but LGG oral administration significantly attenuated these changes. Notably, DON treatment activated the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway which contribute to produce inflammatory cytokines, but oral administration of LGG inhibited all the effects of DON. DON treatment can also induce oxidative stress and activate Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway, leading to the activation of Nrf2 and the downstream genes, while LGG treatment can improve the antioxidant capacity of liver and protected mice from DON injury. In conclusion, LGG was able to negate the detrimental effects of DON on the liver and may contribute as a potential dietary intervention strategy to reduce mycotoxicity.

Patulin and Trichothecene: characteristics, occurrence, toxic effects and detection capabilities via clinical, analytical and nanostructured electrochemical sensing/biosensing assays in foodstuffs

Patulin and Trichothecene as the main groups of mycotoxins in significant quantities can cause health risks from allergic reactions to death on both humans and animals. Accordingly, rapid and highly sensitive determination of these toxics agents is of great importance. This review starts with a comprehensive outlook regarding the characteristics, occurrence and toxic effects of Patulin and Trichothecene. In the following, numerous clinical and analytical approaches have been extensively discussed. The main emphasis of this review is placed on the utilization of novel nanomaterial based electrochemical sensing/biosensing tools for highly sensitive determination of Patulin and Trichothecene. Furthermore, a detailed and comprehensive comparison has been performed between clinical, analytical and sensing methods. Subsequently, the nanomaterial based electrochemical sensing platforms have been approved as reliable tools for on-site analysis of Patulin and Trichothecene in food processing and manufacturing industries. Different nanomaterials in improving the performance of detecting assays were investigated and have various benefits toward clinical and analytical methods. This paper would address the limitations in the current developments as well as the future challenges involved in the successful construction of sensing approaches with the functionalized nanomaterials and also allow exploring into core-research works regarding this area.

N-acetyl-cysteine in combination with celecoxib inhibits Deoxynivalenol induced skin tumor initiation via induction of autophagic pathways in swiss mice

Deoxynivalenol is a trichothecene mycotoxin which naturally contaminates small grain, cereals intended for human and animal consumption. Investigations for dermal toxicity of DON has been needed and highlighted by WHO. Previous studies on dermal toxicity suggest that DON has DNA damaging potential leading to skin tumor initiation in mice skin. However, considering its toxicological manifestations arising after dermal exposure, strategies for its prevention/protection are barely available in literatute. Collectively, our study demonstrated that N-acetylcysteine (NAC), precursor of glutathione, significantly alters the genotoxic potential of DON. Further NAC in combination with Celecoxib (CXB) inhibits tumor growth by altering antioxidant status and increasing autophagy in DON initiated Swiss mice. Despite the broad spectrum use of CXB, its use is limited by the concerns about its adverse effects on the cardiovascular system. Serum parameters and histology analysis revealed that CXB (2 mg) when applied topically for 24 weeks did not impart any cardiovascular toxicity which could be because skin permeation potential of CXB was quite low when analyzed through HPLC analysis. Although the anticancer effects of CXB and NAC have been studied, however, the combination of NAC and CXB has yet not been explored for any cancer treatment. Therefore our observations provide additional insights into the therapeutic effects of combinatorial treatment of CXB and NAC against skin tumor prevention. This approach might form a novel alternative strategy for skin cancer treatment as well as skin associated toxicities caused by mycotoxins such as DON. This combinatorial approach can overcome the limitations associated with the use of CXB for long term as topical application of the same seems to be safe in comparison to the oral mode of administration.

Epigenetic upregulation of galanin-like peptide mediates deoxynivalenol induced-growth inhibition in pituitary cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is an unavoidable contaminant in human food, animal feeds, and agricultural products. Growth retardation in children caused by extensive DON pollution has become a global problem that cannot be ignored. Previous studies have shown that DON causes stunting in children through intestinal dysfunction, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) axis disorder and peptide YY (PYY). Galanin-like peptide (GALP) is an important growth regulator, but its role in DON-induced growth retardation is unclear. In this study, we report the important role of GALP during DON-induced growth inhibition in the rat pituitary tumour cell line GH3. DON was found to increase the expression of GALP through hypomethylationin the promoter region of the GALP gene and upregulate the expression of proinflammatory factors, while downregulate the expression of growth hormone (GH). Furthermore, GALP overexpression promoted proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-11 and IL-6, and further reduced cell viability and cell proliferation, while the inhibitory effect of GALP was the opposite. The expression of GALP and insulin like growth factor binding protein acid labile subunit (IGFALS) showed the opposite trend, which was the potential reason for the regulation of cell proliferation by GALP. In addition, GALP has anti-apoptotic effects, which could not eliminate the inflammatory damage of cells, thus aggravating cell growth inhibition. The present findings provide new mechanistic insights into the toxicity of DON-induced growth retardation and suggest a therapeutic potential of GALP in DON-related diseases.

Long noncoding RNA Gm20319, acting as competing endogenous RNA, regulated GNE expression by sponging miR-7240-5p to involve in deoxynivalenol-induced liver damage in vitro

The regulatory effects of competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network have been highlighted on the occurrence and development of diseases. However, the effect of ceRNA network in liver with subchronic deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure has remained unclear so far. Here, lncRNA Gm20319-miR-7240-5p-GNE (glucosamine UDP-N-acetyl-2-epimerase/N-acetylmannosamine kinase) network was identified in DON exposed-liver tissues after DON exposure for 90 days. Subchronic DON exposure induced the mild inflammation in liver tissues. In DON-treated liver tissues and Hepa 1-6 cell line, the expression of Gm20319 and GNE were both downregulated while miR-7240-5p expression was upregulated. The gain- and loss-of-function expression in vitro revealed there was a mutual repression between Gm20319 and miR-7240-5p, and they regulated GNE expression in an opposite direction. Dual luciferase reporter assays showed miR-7240-5p inhibited Gm20319 and GNE expression by directly binding. Co-transfection experiment in vitro revealed Gm20319 and miR-7240-5p could indirectly regulate sialic acid level by directly modulating GNE expression, thereby also influencing the expression of SOD1 and IL-1β. This study revealed Gm20319-miR-7240-5p-GNE network reduced sialic acid level to influence the expression of SOD1 and IL-1β in liver, which might involve in liver damage induced by DON. Gm20319 might be a potential research molecular target for DON-induced liver damage.