Absorption and disposition of bromate in F344 rats

New aspects in deriving health-based guidance values for bromate in swimming pool water

Bromate, classified as a EU CLP 1B carcinogen, is a typical by-product of the disinfection of drinking and swimming pool water. The aim of this study was (a) to provide data on the occurrence of bromate in pool water, (b) to re-evaluate the carcinogenic MOA of bromate in the light of existing data, (c) to assess the possible exposure to bromate via swimming pool water and (d) to inform the derivation of cancer risk-related bromate concentrations in swimming pool water. Measurements from monitoring analysis of 229 samples showed bromate concentrations in seawater pools up to 34 mg/L. A comprehensive non-systematic literature search was done and the quality of the studies on genotoxicity and carcinogenicity was assessed by Klimisch criteria (Klimisch et al., Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 25:1-5, 1997) and SciRAP tool (Beronius et al., J Appl Toxicol, 38:1460-1470, 2018) respectively. Benchmark dose (BMD) modeling was performed using the modeling average mode in BMDS 3.1 and PROAST 66.40, 67 and 69 (human cancer BMDL10; EFSA 2017). For exposure assessment, data from a wide range of sources were evaluated for their reliability. Different target groups (infants/toddlers, children and adults) and exposure scenarios (recreational, sport-active swimmers, top athletes) were considered for oral, inhalation and dermal exposure. Exposure was calculated according to the frequency of swimming events and duration in water. For illustration, cancer risk-related bromate concentrations in pool water were calculated for different target groups, taking into account their exposure using the hBMDL10 and a cancer risk of 1 in 100,000. Convincing evidence was obtained from a multitude of studies that bromate induces oxidative DNA damage and acts as a clastogen in vitro and in vivo. Since statistical modeling of the available genotoxicity data is compatible with both linear as well as non-linear dose-response relationships, bromate should be conservatively considered to be a non-threshold carcinogen. BMD modeling with model averaging for renal cancer studies (Kurokawa et al., J Natl. Cancer Inst, 1983 and 1986a; DeAngelo et al., Toxicol Pathol 26:587-594, 1998) resulted in a median hBMDL10 of 0.65 mg bromate/kg body weight (bw) per day. Evaluation of different age and activity groups revealed that top athletes had the highest exposure, followed by sport-active children, sport-active adults, infants and toddlers, children and adults. The predominant route of exposure was oral (73-98%) by swallowing water, followed by the dermal route (2-27%), while the inhalation route was insignificant (< 0.5%). Accepting the same risk level for all population groups resulted in different guidance values due to the large variation in exposure. For example, for an additional risk of 1 in 100,000, the bromate concentrations would range between 0.011 for top athletes, 0.015 for sport-active children and 2.1 mg/L for adults. In conclusion, the present study shows that health risks due to bromate exposure by swimming pool water cannot be excluded and that large differences in risk exist depending on the individual swimming habits and water concentrations.

Development of a rat and human PBPK model for bromate and estimation of human equivalent concentrations in drinking water

A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed to described uptake, disposition and clearance of bromate in the rat using published experimental data in rat. The rodent bromate model was extrapolated to human using species-specific physiological parameters and standard interspecies scaling of rate constants. The bromate model is kinetically linear (i.e. AUC and Cmax) across the range of drinking water concentrations used in the cancer bioassays (15 to 500 ppm). This is likely the result of the poor oral bioavailability of bromate due to high reduction rates in the intestinal tract. The bromate PBPK model was used to assess the human equivalent drinking water concentration (HEC) consistent with average plasma concentrations in the rodent bioassays. At drinking water concentrations <500 mg/L, the predicted HEC was two to three fold lower than the bioassay concentration and was dependent on the reported drinking water intake reported in the bioassay.

Bromate inhibition by reduced graphene oxide in thermal/PMS process

Bromate (BrO₃^-), as a contaminant producing from bromide (Br^-) oxidation, has been revealed for generation in sulfate radical involved processes. In this work, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was firstly applied to inhibit the formation of BrO₃^- in thermally activated peroxymonosulfate (thermal/PMS) treatment. In the presence of 5-35 mg/L rGO, the decomposition rate of PMS was slightly increased from 0.0162 ± 0.0013 min^-1 to 0.0200 ± 0.0010 min^-1, corresponding to removal rate of target pollutant increasing from 0.0157 ± 0.0012 min^-1 to 0.0204 ± 0.0022 min^-1. This suggested the decay of PMS, the concentration and distribution of radicals were not influenced dramatically by the addition of rGO, which was partly supported by the almost unchanged HPLC chromatograms as compared with that in the absence of rGO. However, the produced BrO₃^- was significantly lowered by 67%-100% with the addition of rGO in a wide range of pH at 5-9 and activation temperature at 60-80 °C. Moreover, a quick reduction of hypobromous acid (HOBr) to Br^- was achieved with addition of rGO at room temperature, whilst no abatement of BrO₃^- and Br^- was observed in the same conditions. Therefore, masking HOBr was probably the role of rGO on bromate inhibition in thermal/PMS process. Because HOBr is a requisite intermediate for BrO₃^-, the inhibition effect of rGO is likely irrelevant of oxidation processes, which was inevitably showed by the good performance of rGO on BrO₃^- suppress in ozonation. Therefore, the addition of rGO in tens of mg/L is a promising measure to avoid the formation of unwanted bromine species in advanced oxidation processes.

Influence of UV lamp, sulfur(IV) concentration, and pH on bromate degradation in UV/sulfite systems: Mechanisms and applications

Bromate (BrO₃^-) is a possible human carcinogen regulated worldwide at a strict standard of 10 μg/L in drinking water. Removal of BrO₃^- by advanced reduction processes (ARPs) has attracted much attention due to its high reduction efficiency and easier combination with ultraviolet (UV) disinfection. In this study, we employed a UV/sulfite process to degrade BrO₃^- and studied the effects of UV lamp, sulfur(IV) concentration, and pH on effectiveness of the system in degrading BrO₃^-. Low-pressure UV lamps (UV-L) instead of medium-pressure UV lamps (UV-M) were selected because of the high ultraviolet-C (UV-C) efficiency of UV-L. The increased sulfur(IV) concentration is proportionally correlated with enhanced degradation kinetics. BrO₃^- reduction was improved by increasing pH when pH is within 6.0-9.0, and principal component analysis demonstrated that pH is the most influential factor over sulfur(IV) concentration and type of UV lamp. Degradation mechanisms at different pH levels were subsequently investigated. Results showed that the reduction reactions are induced by hydrated electron (e_aq^-) at pH > 9.0, by H at pH 4.0, and by both e_aq^- and H at pH 7.0. Effective quantum efficiency for the formation of e_aq^- and H in the photocatalytic systems was determined to be 0.109 ± 0.001 and 0.034 ± 0.001 mol E^-1, respectively. Furthermore, mass balance calculation of bromine and sulfur at pH 7 showed that bromide, sulfate and possibly dithionate ions were the major products, and a degradation pathway was proposed accordingly. Moreover, UV/sulfite processes could reduce the initial bromate concentration of 0.1 mM by 82% and 95% in the presence and absence of O₂ in tap water respectively, and 99% in the absence of O₂ in deionized water within 20 min at pH 9.0 and 2.0 mM sulfur (IV).

Bromate oxidized from bromide during sonolytic ozonation

Sonolytic ozonation (US/O3) is an effective way to degrade many pollutants in drinking water as the elevated mass transfer rate of ozone gas and the enhanced forming of hydroxyl radicals (OH). This work investigated the formation of bromate (BrO3(-)) from bromide (Br(-)) in sonolytic ozonation. At neutral pH, the bromate conversion rate ([BrO3(-)]/[Br(-)]0) was increased to 60% by ultrasound at continuous ozone flow (0-0.2Lmin(-1)), much higher than that without ultrasound or without bubbling. This indicates that the promoting effect of sonolysis on BrO3(-) formation is mainly due to the sonolytic decomposition of ozone and the enhancement of gas-liquid transfer. The [BrO3(-)]/[Br(-)]0 was increased with increasing pH. In addition, the reduction of HOBr/OBr(-) with ultrasound demonstrates that bromate may be inhibited as the bromide was formed with the H2O2 generation under ultrasound. This suggests the competition between bromate and bromide during the US/O3 led to the inhibition of bromate formation at high ozone flow. Therefore, our result reveals that the bromate formation under ultrasound is improved remarkably in US/O3 in quick treatment with proper ozone flow (<0.2Lmin(-1)).

Epigenetic changes in p21 expression in renal cells after exposure to bromate

This study tested the hypothesis that bromate (KBrO3)-induced renal cell death is mediated by epigenetic mechanisms. Global DNA methylation, as assessed by 5-methylcytosine staining, was not changed in normal rat kidney cells treated with acute cytotoxic doses of KBrO3 (100 and 200 ppm), as compared with controls. However, KBrO3 treatment did increase p38, p53 and histone 2AX (H2AX) phosphorylation, and p21 expression. Treatment of cells with inhibitors of DNA methyltransferase (5-azacytidine or 5-Aza) and histone deacetylase (trichostatin A or TSA) in addition to KBrO3 increased cytotoxicity, as compared with cells exposed to KBrO3 alone. 5-Aza and TSA co-treatment did not alter p38 or p53 phosphorylation, but slightly decreased H2AX phosphorylation and significantly decreased p21 expression. We also assessed epigenetic changes in cells treated under sub-chronic conditions with environmentally relevant concentrations of KBrO3. Under these conditions (0-10ppm KBrO3 for up to 18 days), we detected no increases in cell death or DNA damage. In contrast, slight alterations were detected in the phosphorylation of H2AX, p38, and p53. Sub-chronic low-dose KBrO3 treatment also induced a biphasic response in p21 expression, with lower concentrations increasing expression, but higher concentrations decreasing expression. Methylation-specific PCR demonstrated that sub-chronic KBrO3 treatment altered the methylation of cytosine bases in the p21 gene, as compared with controls, correlating to alterations in p21 protein expression. Collectively, these data show the novel finding that KBrO3-induced renal cell death is altered by inhibitors of epigenetic modifying enzymes and that KBrO3 itself induces epigenetic changes in the p21 gene.

Photocatalytic decomposition of bromate ion by the UV/P25-Graphene processes

The photocatalysis of bromate (BrO3(-)) attracts much attention as BrO3(-) is a carcinogenic and genotoxic contaminant in drinking water. In this work, TiO2-graphene composite (P25-GR) photocatalyst for BrO3(-) reduction were prepared by a facile one-step hydrothermal method, which exhibited a higher capacity of BrO3(-) removal than P25 or GR did. The maximum removal of BrO3(-) was observed in the optimal conductions of 1% GR doping and at pH 6.8. Compared with that without UV, the higher decreasing of BrO3(-) on the composite indicates that BrO3(-) decomposition was predominantly contributed to photo-reduction with UV rather than adsorption. This hypothesis was supported by the decreasing of [BrO3(-)] with the synchronous increasing of [Br(-)] at nearly constant amount of total Bromine ([BrO3(-)] + [Br(-)]). Furthermore, the improvement of BrO3(-) reduction on P25-GR was observed in the treatment of a tap water. However, the efficiency of BrO3(-) removal was less than that in deionized water, probably due to the consumption of photo-generated electrons and the adsorption of natural organic matters (NOM) on graphene.

Protective effects of quercetin and quercetin-5',8-disulfonate against carbon tetrachloride-caused oxidative liver injury in mice

Oxidative stress is one of the major factors in the pathogenesis of liver disease. Quercetin is a plant-based antioxidant traditionally used as a treatment for hepatic injury, but its poor solubility affects its bioavailability. We here report the regulative effects on hepatoprotection and absorption in mice of quercetin sulfation to form quercetin-5',8-disulfonate (QS), a novel synthetic compound. Oral administration of both QS and the parent quercetin at 100, 200 and 500 mg/kg·bw prior to acute CCl₄ oxidative damage in mice, effectively attenuated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities and hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) levels (p < 0.05), and suppressed the CCl₄-induced depletion of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD). Selective 5',8-sulfation of quercetin increased the hepatoprotective effect, and its relative absorption relative to quercetin (p < 0.05) as indicated by an improved 24-hour urinary excretion and a decreased fecal excretion determined by HPLC. These results and histopathological observations collectively demonstrate that quercetin sulfation increases its hepatoprotective effects and absorption in mice, and QS has potential as a chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agent for liver diseases.

Association of brominated proteins and changes in protein expression in the rat kidney with subcarcinogenic to carcinogenic doses of bromate

The water disinfection byproduct bromate (BrO3(-)) produces cytotoxic and carcinogenic effects in rat kidneys. Our previous studies demonstrated that BrO3(-) caused sex-dependent differences in renal gene and protein expression in rats and the elimination of brominated organic carbon in their urine. The present study examined changes in renal cell apoptosis and protein expression in male and female F344 rats treated with BrO3(-) and associated these changes with accumulation of 3-bromotyrosine (3-BT)-modified proteins. Rats were treated with 0, 11.5, 46 and 308 mg/L BrO3(-) in drinking water for 28 days and renal sections were prepared and examined for apoptosis (TUNEL-staining), 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine (8-oxoG), 3-BT, osteopontin, Kim-1, clusterin, and p-21 expression. TUNEL-staining in renal proximal tubules increased in a dose-related manner beginning at 11.5mg BrO3(-)/L in female rats and 46 mg/L in males. Increased 8-oxoG staining was observed at doses as low as 46 mg/L. Osteopontin expression also increased in a dose-related manner after treatment with 46 mg/L, in males only. In contrast, Kim-1 expression increased in a dose-related manner in both sexes, although to a greater extent in females at the highest dose. Clusterin and p21 expression also increased in a dose-related manner in both sexes. The expression of 3-BT-modified proteins only increased in male rats, following a pattern previously reported for accumulation of α-2u-globulin. Increases in apoptosis in renal proximal tubules of male and female rats at the lowest doses suggest a common mode of action for renal carcinogenesis for the two sexes that is independent of α-2u-globulin nephropathy.