Preclinical Rodent Toxicity Studies for Long Term Use of Ceftriaxone

Ceftriaxone has a neuroprotective effect in a whole-brain irradiation-induced neurotoxicity model by increasing GLT-1 and reducing oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

Radiation-induced brain injury is a prominent side effect of whole-brain irradiation (IR) due to triggered oxidative and inflammatory processes, often resulting in severe and debilitating cognitive dysfunction and neuronal damage. The development of persistent oxidative stress results from radiation-induced reactive oxygen species. Another result is the initiation of glutamate excitotoxicity, which is closely associated with changes in glutamate levels. Elevated release or reduced glutamate uptake disrupts neuronal homeostasis, leading to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation. The neuroprotective and antioxidant properties of ceftriaxone (CTX) have been linked to its ability to reduce glutamate excitotoxicity, inflammation, and to modulate oxidative stress.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-one female Wistar rats were included in the study, and 14 of them underwent whole-brain IR with a single dose of 20 Gy on day 7. Saline and CTX applications continued for 21 days. The animals were divided into three groups: group 1: normal control; group 2: IR + saline; and group 3: IR + CTX. To compare the groups, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical test was employed, with a significance threshold set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Ceftriaxone treatment had a positive impact on the results of various assessments, e.g., behavioral tests including the three-chamber sociability test, the open-field test, and passive avoidance learning. It also led to increased counts of hippocampal CA1, CA3, and Purkinje neurons as well as elevated brain levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Conversely, CTX reduced the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunostaining index as well as brain levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α).

CONCLUSION

Ceftriaxone demonstrated promising effectiveness in mitigating radiation-induced neurocognitive impairments and the deterioration of social memory capacity. This effect is achieved by reducing neuronal loss, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation in irradiated rat brains. Furthermore, the application of CTX facilitated removal of excess glutamate from synapses, thus preventing glutamate excitotoxicity and protecting neurons from excitotoxic cell death.

Ceftriaxone Inhibits Conditioned Fear and Compulsive-like Repetitive Marble Digging without Central Nervous System Side Effects Typical of Diazepam-A Study on DBA2/J Mice and a High-5HT Subline of Wistar-Zagreb 5HT Rats

Background: Ceftriaxone upregulates GLT1 glutamate transporter in the brain and may have anti-CFC and anti-OCD effects. Methods: Twenty WZ-5HT rats were used to investigate the effects of ceftriaxone on obsessive-compulsive (OCD)-like behaviour in the marble-burying (MB) test, freezing behaviour in contextual fear conditioning (CFC) and expression of GLT1 protein in the hippocampus or amygdala using immunoblots. Fifteen DBA/2J mice were used in the MB test. We also compared diazepam with ceftriaxone in open-field, beam-walking, and wire-hanging tests on 47 DBA/2J mice. Ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg) and saline were applied intraperitoneally, once daily for 7 (rats) or 5 (mice) consecutive days. A single dose of diazepam (1.5-3.0 mg/kg) or saline was injected 30 min before the behavioural tests. Results: Ceftriaxone significantly diminished OCD-like behaviour (↓ number of marbles buried) and freezing behaviour in CFC context session (↑ latencies, ↓ total duration, ↓ duration over four 2 min periods of the session) but increased GLT1 protein expression in the amygdala and hippocampus of rats. Diazepam induced sedation, ataxia and myorelaxation in mice. Ceftriaxone did not have these side effects. Conclusions: The results of this study confirm the anti-CFC and anti-OCD effects of ceftriaxone, which did not produce the unwanted effects typical of diazepam.

Adverse Drug Reactions Resulting From the Use of Chiral Medicines Amoxicillin, Amoxicillin-Clavulanic Acid, and Ceftriaxone: A Mixed Prospective-Retrospective Cohort Study

The use of chiral medicines (possessing center(s) of asymmetric carbon) may cause adverse drug reactions (ADRs). The safety assurance of these medicines is critical. We aimed to evaluate registered and commonly used anti-infective chiral medicines circulating in the Tanzanian market to establish their safety profile to protect public health. A mixed prospective-retrospective cohort study was conducted to assess the safety profile of amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and ceftriaxone injection. ADRs causality assessment was conducted by using World Health Organization (WHO)-Algorithm criteria. Data were collected from 7 tertiary hospitals: Muhimbili National Hospital (MNH), Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC), Bugando Medical Centre (BMC), Ligula Referral-Regional Hospital (LRRH), Kitete Referral-Regional Hospital (KRRH), Dodoma Referral-Regional Hospital (DRRH), and Mbeya Zonal-Referral Hospital (MZRH). Data were supplemented by those recorded in the WHO-Vigiflow/VigiLyze database within the same monitoring period. Data were analyzed using STATA version-15. The results were considered statistically significant when P < .05. A total of 2522 patients were enrolled in hospitals: MNH (499), KCMC (407), BMC (396), LRRH (387), KRRH (345), DRRH (249), and MZRH (239). Among those, 1197 (47.5%) were treated with ceftriaxone, 585 (23.2%) amoxicillin and 740(29.3%) amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. Out of those, 102 (4.5%) experienced adverse events (AEs), 49 (48%) were due to ceftriaxone, 37 (36.3%) amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and 16 (15.7%) amoxicillin (P-value .012). A total of 443 participants from the enrolled and WHO-Vigiflow/VigiLyze database were experienced with ADRs. The ADRs affected mainly gastro-intestinal system 234 (53%), skin and subcutaneous tissue 85 (19%), nervous system 49 (11%), respiratory thoracic 22 (5%), and general disorders 18(4%). In this study, approximately 90% of reported AEs were ADRs possible-related to the monitored medicines, with few plausible and certain. Ceftriaxone injection caused more ADRs. Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid was associated with more ADRs than amoxicillin alone. The safety profile of these medicines is still maintained; however, comprehensive monitoring of ADRs is recommended to improve patient safety and enhance overall treatment outcomes.

Ceftriaxone therapy attenuates brain trauma in rats by affecting glutamate transporters and neuroinflammation and not by its antibacterial effects

BACKGROUND

Ceftriaxone is a β-lactam antibiotic used to treat central nervous system infections. Whether the neuroprotective effects of ceftriaxone after TBI are mediated by attenuating neuroinflammation but not its antibacterial actions is not well established.

METHODS

Anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into sham-operated, TBI + vehicle, and TBI + ceftriaxone groups. Ceftriaxone was intraperitoneally injected at 0, 24, and 48 h with 50 or 250 mg/kg/day after TBI. During the first 120 min after TBI, we continuously measured heart rate, arterial pressure, intracranial pressure (ICP), and cerebral perfusion pressure. The infarct volume was measured by TTC staining. Motor function was measured using the inclined plane. Glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1), neuronal apoptosis and TNF-α expression in the perilesioned cortex were investigated using an immunofluorescence assay. Bacterial evaluation was performed by Brown and Brenn's Gram staining. These parameters above were measured at 72 h after TBI.

RESULTS

Compared with the TBI + vehicle group, the TBI + ceftriaxone 250 mg/kg group showed significantly lower ICP, improved motor dysfunction, reduced body weight loss, decreased infarct volume and neuronal apoptosis, decreased TBI-induced microglial activation and TNF-α expression in microglia, and increased GLT-1 expression in neurons and microglia. However, the grades of histopathological changes of antibacterial effects are zero.

CONCLUSIONS

The intraperitoneal injection of ceftriaxone with 250 mg/kg/day for three days may attenuate TBI by increasing GLT-1 expression and reducing neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis, thereby resulting in an improvement in functional outcomes, and this neuroprotective effect is not related to its antibacterial effects.

The reproductive inhibitory effects of levonorgestrel, quinestrol, and EP-1 in Brandt's vole (Lasiopodomys brandtii)

BACKGROUND

Rodent pests can inflict devastating impacts on agriculture and the environment, leading to significant economic damage associated with their high species diversity, reproductive rates and adaptability. Fertility control methods could indirectly control rodent pest populations as well as limit ecological consequences and environmental concerns caused by lethal chemical poisons. Brandt's voles, which are common rodent pests found in the grasslands of middle-eastern Inner Mongolia, eastern regions of Mongolia, and some regions of southern Russia, were assessed in the present study.

METHODS

We evaluated the effects of a 2-mg/kg dose of levonorgestrel and quinestrol and a 1:1 mixture of the two (EP-1) on reproductive behavior as well as changes in the reproductive system, reproductive hormone levels, and toxicity in Brandt's voles.

RESULTS

Our results revealed that all three fertility control agents can cause reproductive inhibition at a dosage of 2 mg/kg. However, quinestrol caused a greater degree of toxicity, as determined by visible liver damage and reduced expression of the detoxifying molecule CYP1A2. Of the remaining two fertility control agents, EP-1 was superior to levonorgestrel in inhibiting the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and causing reproductive inhibition. We believe that these findings could help promote the use of these fertility control agents and, in turn, reduce the use of chemical poisons and limit their detrimental ecological and environmental impacts.

Molecular changes evoked by the beta-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone across rodent models of substance use disorder and neurological disease

Ceftriaxone is a beta-lactam antibiotic that increases the expression of the major glutamate transporter, GLT-1. As such, ceftriaxone ameliorates symptoms across multiple rodent models of neurological diseases and substance use disorders. However, the mechanism behind GLT-1 upregulation is unknown. The present review synthesizes this literature in order to identify commonalities in molecular changes. We find that ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg for at least two days) consistently restores GLT-1 expression in multiple rodent models of neurological disease, especially when GLT-1 is decreased in the disease model. The same dose given to healthy/drug-naive rodents does not reliably upregulate GLT-1 in any brain region except the hippocampus. Increased GLT-1 expression does not consistently arise from transcriptional regulation, and is likely to be due to trafficking changes. In addition to altered transporter expression, ceftriaxone ameliorates neuropathologies (e.g. tau, amyloid beta, cell death) and aberrant protein expression associated with a number of neurological disease models. Taken together, these results indicate that ceftriaxone remains a strong candidate for treatment of multiple disorders in the clinic.