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Xiao X, Wang Q, Zhang X, Jiang B, Liu M. Restore High-Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra from Inhomogeneous Magnetic Fields Using a Neural Network. Anal Chem 2023; 95:16567-16574. [PMID: 37921276 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c02688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
High-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical tool with wide applications. However, the conventional shim technique may not guarantee the homogeneity of the magnetic field when the experimental conditions are unfavorable. In this study, we proposed a data postprocessing method called Restore High-resolution Unet (RH-Unet), which uses a convolutional neural network to restore distorted NMR spectra that have been acquired in inhomogeneous magnetic fields. The method generates feature-label pairs from singlet peak regions and ideal Lorentzian line shapes and trains a RH-Unet model to map low-resolution spectra to high-resolution spectra. The method was applied to different samples and showed superior performance than the reference deconvolution method incorporated in Bruker Topspin software. The proposed method provides a simple and fast way to obtain high-resolution NMR spectra in inhomogeneous fields that can facilitate the application of NMR spectroscopy in various fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiongjie Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Qianqian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Optics Valley Laboratory, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Bin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Optics Valley Laboratory, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Maili Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Optics Valley Laboratory, Wuhan 430074, China
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2
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Clausen PA, Kofoed-Sørensen V, Nørgaard AW, Sahlgren NM, Jensen KA. Thermogravimetry and Mass Spectrometry of Extractable Organics from Manufactured Nanomaterials for Identification of Potential Coating Components. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 12:E3657. [PMID: 31698885 PMCID: PMC6888238 DOI: 10.3390/ma12223657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) often have a surface-chemical modification in order to tailor their physicochemical properties, including also powder properties and miscibility. Surface-chemical modifications may influence the toxicological properties of the MNM, but the specific chemistry and extent are rarely described in detail in suppliers' technical data sheets. Chemical and quantitative information on any surface-chemical treatment, coating and functionalization are required for chemicals registration in Europe. Currently there is no globally accepted and documented approach to generate such data. Consequently, there is a continued research need to establish a structured approach to identify and quantify surface-chemical modifications. Here we present a tiered approach starting with screening for mass-loss during heating in a furnace or thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) followed by solvent extraction, and analysis by several mass spectrometry (MS) techniques depending on the target analytes. Thermal treatment was assumed to be able to quantify the amount of organic coating and MS was used to identify the extractable organic coatings after pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) using methanol at 200 °C. Volatile organic compounds in extracts were identified with gas chromatography and MS (GC-MS), non-volatile organic compounds with liquid chromatography MS (LC-MS), and polymeric compounds with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight MS (MALDI-TOF-MS). The approach was demonstrated by analysis of 24 MNM, comprising titanium dioxide, synthetic amorphous silica, graphite, zinc oxide, silver, calcium carbonate, iron oxide, nickel-zinc-iron oxide, and organoclay. In extracts of 14 MNMs a range of organic compounds were identified and the main groups were silanes/siloxanes, fatty acids, fatty acid esters, quaternary ammonium compounds and polymeric compounds. In the remaining 10 MNMs no organic compounds were detected by MS, despite the fact an organic coating was indicated by TGA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Axel Clausen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.K.-S.); (A.W.N.); (N.M.S.)
| | - Vivi Kofoed-Sørensen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.K.-S.); (A.W.N.); (N.M.S.)
| | - Asger W. Nørgaard
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.K.-S.); (A.W.N.); (N.M.S.)
- Novo Nordisk, DK-2760 Måløv, Denmark
| | - Nicklas Mønster Sahlgren
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.K.-S.); (A.W.N.); (N.M.S.)
| | - Keld Alstrup Jensen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.K.-S.); (A.W.N.); (N.M.S.)
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3
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Zhang K, Wang X, Guan F, Li Q, Li J. Immobilization of Ophiopogonin D on stainless steel surfaces for improving surface endothelialization. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra17584h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ophiopogonin D, a traditional Chinese medicine, was immobilized onto the surface of cardiovascular 316L SS material to improve surface endothelialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhang
- School of Life Science
- Zhengzhou University
- Zhengzhou 450001
- PR China
- National Center for International Research of Micro-nano Molding Technology
| | - Xiaofeng Wang
- National Center for International Research of Micro-nano Molding Technology
- Key Laboratory for Micro Molding Technology of Henan Province
- Zhengzhou 450001
- PR China
| | - Fangxia Guan
- School of Life Science
- Zhengzhou University
- Zhengzhou 450001
- PR China
| | - Qian Li
- National Center for International Research of Micro-nano Molding Technology
- Key Laboratory for Micro Molding Technology of Henan Province
- Zhengzhou 450001
- PR China
| | - Jingan Li
- School of Material Science and Engineering
- Zhengzhou University
- Zhengzhou 450001
- PR China
- National Center for International Research of Micro-nano Molding Technology
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4
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A review of polyphenolics in oak woods. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:6978-7014. [PMID: 25826529 PMCID: PMC4425000 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16046978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyphenolics, which are ubiquitous in plants, currently are among the most studied phytochemicals because of their perceptible chemical properties and antioxidant activity. Oak barrels and their alternatives, which are widely used in winemaking nowadays, contribute polyphenolics to wines and are thought to play crucial roles in the development of wines during aging. This study summarizes the detailed information of polyphenolics in oak woods and their products by examining their structures and discussing their chemical reactions during wine aging. This paper evaluates the most recent developments in polyphenolic chemistry by summarizing their extraction, separation, and their identification by the use of chromatographic and spectral techniques. In addition, this paper also introduces polyphenol bioactive ingredients in other plant foods.
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5
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Lin PC. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Nanomedicine. PROGRESS IN OPTICAL SCIENCE AND PHOTONICS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-287-242-5_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Bell JP, Cloud JE, Cheng J, Ngo C, Kodambaka S, Sellinger A, Ratanathanawongs Williams SK, Yang Y. N-Bromosuccinimide-based bromination and subsequent functionalization of hydrogen-terminated silicon quantum dots. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra08477b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
N-Bromosuccinimide based bromination is proven to be an effective and mild intermediate step to produce surface functionalized, red-emitting, colloidal SiQDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob P. Bell
- Department of Chemistry and Geochemistry
- Colorado School of Mines
- Golden, U.S.A
| | - Jacqueline E. Cloud
- Department of Chemistry and Geochemistry
- Colorado School of Mines
- Golden, U.S.A
| | - Jifang Cheng
- Department of Chemistry and Geochemistry
- Colorado School of Mines
- Golden, U.S.A
| | - Chilan Ngo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- University of California Los Angeles (UCLA)
- Los Angeles, U.S.A
| | - Suneel Kodambaka
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- University of California Los Angeles (UCLA)
- Los Angeles, U.S.A
| | - Alan Sellinger
- Department of Chemistry and Geochemistry
- Colorado School of Mines
- Golden, U.S.A
| | | | - Yongan Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Geochemistry
- Colorado School of Mines
- Golden, U.S.A
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Nelson DJ, Kumar R. Characterizing Covalently Sidewall-Functionalized SWCNTs by using 1H NMR Spectroscopy. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2013; 117:14812-14823. [PMID: 24009779 PMCID: PMC3758891 DOI: 10.1021/jp402307k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Unambiguous evidence for covalent sidewall functionalization of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) has been a difficult task, especially for nanomaterials in which slight differences in functionality structure produce significant changes in molecular characteristics. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy provides clear information about the structural skeleton of molecules attached to SWCNTs. In order to establish the generality of proton NMR as an analytical technique for characterizing covalently functionalized SWCNTs, we have obtained and analyzed proton NMR data of SWCNT-substituted benzenes across a variety of para substituents. Trends obtained for differences in proton NMR chemical shifts and the impact of o-, p-, and m-directing effects of electrophilic aromatic substituents on phenyl groups covalently bonded to SWCNTs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna J Nelson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019 United States
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8
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des Rieux A, Pourcelle V, Cani PD, Marchand-Brynaert J, Préat V. Targeted nanoparticles with novel non-peptidic ligands for oral delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:833-44. [PMID: 23454185 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Revised: 01/12/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Orally administered targeted nanoparticles have a large number of potential biomedical applications and display several putative advantages for oral drug delivery, such as the protection of fragile drugs or modification of drug pharmacokinetics. These advantages notwithstanding, oral drug delivery by nanoparticles remains challenging. The optimization of particle size and surface properties and targeting by ligand grafting have been shown to enhance nanoparticle transport across the intestinal epithelium. Here, different grafting strategies for non-peptidic ligands, e.g., peptidomimetics, lectin mimetics, sugars and vitamins, that are stable in the gastrointestinal tract are discussed. We demonstrate that the grafting of these non-peptidic ligands allows nanoparticles to be targeted to M cells, enterocytes, immune cells or L cells. We show that these grafted nanoparticles could be promising vehicles for oral vaccination by targeting M cells or for the delivery of therapeutic proteins. We suggest that targeting L cells could be useful for the treatment of type 2 diabetes or obesity.
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Kalyanaraman L, Ganesh KKS, Kumar RM, Pichai R, Narasimhan S, Vyas K. AN NMR AND LC-MS BASED MIXTURE ANALYSIS APPROACH FOR STRUCTURAL ELUCIDATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL DERIVATIVES OF CALOPHYLLOLIDE. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2011.621155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. Kalyanaraman
- a Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd, IPDO , Bachupally , Hyderabad , India
- b Department of Chemistry , Presidency College , Chennai , India
| | - K. K. Sree Ganesh
- a Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd, IPDO , Bachupally , Hyderabad , India
| | - R. Mohan Kumar
- c Asthagiri Herbal Research Foundation, Tambaram , Chennai , India
| | - R. Pichai
- b Department of Chemistry , Presidency College , Chennai , India
| | - S. Narasimhan
- c Asthagiri Herbal Research Foundation, Tambaram , Chennai , India
| | - K. Vyas
- a Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd, IPDO , Bachupally , Hyderabad , India
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10
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Tataurova Y, Sealy MJ, Larsen RG, Larsen SC. Surface-Selective Solution NMR Studies of Functionalized Zeolite Nanoparticles. J Phys Chem Lett 2012; 3:425-429. [PMID: 26285861 DOI: 10.1021/jz201582d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The surface chemistry of zeolite nanoparticles functionalized with the organosilane aminopropyldimethylmethoxysilane (APDMMS) was selectively probed using solution (1)H NMR spectroscopy. The use of solution NMR spectroscopy results in high-resolution NMR spectra, and the technique is selective for protons on the surface organic functional groups due to their motional averaging in solution. In this study, (1)H solution NMR spectroscopy was used to investigate the interface of the organic functional groups of APDMMS-functionalized silicalite nanoparticles (∼35 nm) in D2O. The pKa for the amine group of APDMMS-functionalized silicalite nanoparticles in D2O was determined using an NMR-pH titration method based on the variation in the proton chemical shift for the alkyl group protons closest to the amine group with pH. The resulting NMR spectra demonstrate the sensitivity of solution NMR spectroscopy to the electronic environment and structure of the surface functional groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia Tataurova
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Michael J Sealy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Russell G Larsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Sarah C Larsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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12
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Tsao TM, Chen YM, Wang MK. Origin, separation and identification of environmental nanoparticles: a review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 13:1156-63. [PMID: 21505694 DOI: 10.1039/c1em10013k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The biogeochemical and ecological impacts of environmental nanoparticles (ENPs) are some of the fastest growing areas of research today. However, efficient separation and collection of ENPs in natural systems remains difficult. This review article is focused on experimental investigation of separation and identification of ENPs, including nanoparticles with size fractions in the range of <2000, 450 to 2000, 100 to 450 and 1 to 100 nm. An automated ultrafiltration device (AUD) was used successfully to overcome the problem of efficiently collecting ENPs in large quantities in red soils. A significant amount of hematite nanoparticles was present on the surface coating of kaolinite nanoparticles and aggregated hematite nanoparticles overlapping the edge of a kaolinite flake in a size range of 5 to 8 nm. Synchrotron XRD technique is more straightforward and powerful than conventional XRD with oriented specimens and random powder methods for identifying nanoparticles, crystallinity, and particle size in red soils, particularly for the illite, kaolinite, goethite and hematite nanoparticles. The AUD apparatus can be employed to efficiently collect large quantities of soil and related ENPs for investigation of their structural characteristics and surface properties, which have significant impact on weathering reaction pathways, catalysis, the fate of vital elements and environmental pollutants, and ecosystem restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung M Tsao
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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13
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Nasr G, Guerlin A, Dumur F, Baudron SA, Dumas E, Miomandre F, Clavier G, Sliwa M, Mayer CR. Dithiolate-Appended Iridium(III) Complex with Dual Functions of Reducing and Capping Agent for the Design of Small-Sized Gold Nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:6501-4. [DOI: 10.1021/ja111384m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gihane Nasr
- Institut Lavoisier de Versailles, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin en Yvelines, UMR 8180 CNRS, 78035 Versailles, France
| | - Audrey Guerlin
- Institut Lavoisier de Versailles, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin en Yvelines, UMR 8180 CNRS, 78035 Versailles, France
- Institut d'Alembert, IFR 121, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan, 94235 Cachan, France
| | - Frédéric Dumur
- Laboratoire Chimie Provence, équipe CROPS, UMR 6264 CNRS, Universités d’Aix-Marseille I, II, III, 13397 Marseille, France
| | - Stéphane A. Baudron
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination Organique, Université de Strasbourg, UMR 7140 CNRS, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Eddy Dumas
- Institut Lavoisier de Versailles, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin en Yvelines, UMR 8180 CNRS, 78035 Versailles, France
| | - Fabien Miomandre
- Institut d'Alembert, IFR 121, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan, 94235 Cachan, France
| | - Gilles Clavier
- Institut d'Alembert, IFR 121, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan, 94235 Cachan, France
| | - Michel Sliwa
- Laboratoire de Spectrochimie Infrarouge et Raman, UMR-CNRS 8516, Université Lille Nord de France, Université Lille 1 Sciences et Technologies de Lille, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Cédric R. Mayer
- Institut Lavoisier de Versailles, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin en Yvelines, UMR 8180 CNRS, 78035 Versailles, France
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16
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Wu ZY, Huang RB, Xie SY, Zheng LS. Ruthenium–bipyridine complexes bearing fullerene or carbon nanotubes: synthesis and impact of different carbon-based ligands on the resulting products. Dalton Trans 2011; 40:8353-60. [DOI: 10.1039/c1dt10417a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Su G, Yan B. Nano-combinatorial chemistry strategy for nanotechnology research. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 12:215-21. [PMID: 20131816 DOI: 10.1021/cc900193g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gaoxing Su
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, China
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18
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Zhou H, Li X, Lemoff A, Zhang B, Yan B. Structural confirmation and quantification of individual ligands from the surface of multi-functionalized gold nanoparticles. Analyst 2010; 135:1210-3. [PMID: 20498874 DOI: 10.1039/c0an00066c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A novel approach to identify structures and quantify the absolute amounts of individual ligands on multi-functionalized gold nanoparticles by an FTIR and HPLC/MS/UV/CLND method has been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyu Zhou
- St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA
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Analytical strategies for characterizing the surface chemistry of nanoparticles. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 396:973-82. [PMID: 19644676 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2996-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Revised: 07/16/2009] [Accepted: 07/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Chemical modifications of nanoparticle (NP) surfaces are likely to regulate their activities, remove their toxic effects, and enable them to perform desired functions. It is urgent to develop analytical strategies for acquiring structural and quantitative information about small molecules linked to the surface of NP. Recent progress in characterizing the surface chemistry of NPs using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy (LC-MS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and combustion elemental analysis are reviewed.
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