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Morel N, Torrents J, Sarli M, Rossner MV, Lifschitz AL, Nava S. Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of Rhipicephalus microplus resistance to chemical acaricides at intra-farm level: A case study using ivermectin. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2025; 39:351-360. [PMID: 39723766 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2024] [Accepted: 12/10/2024] [Indexed: 12/28/2024]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to analyse the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of Rhipicephalus microplus (Canestrini, 1888) (Acari: Ixodidae) resistance to chemical acaricides at intra-farm level under different environmental (favourable and unfavourable areas for tick development) and management (different schemes of acaricides applications) conditions using ivermectin as a model. The in vitro larval immersion test (LIT) was used to determine quantitatively the levels of resistance to ivermectin in the different populations and subpopulations of R. microplus analysed. In the first case study, differences in resistance levels among tick samples within the same paddock across time and among tick samples from different paddocks were recorded. These results stress the importance of taking successive samples so that they represent the spatial and temporal variabilities in the levels of resistance that can occur within the same farm. In a second case study, the evolution of resistance in R. microplus subpopulations subjected to strategic and threshold control methods based on the application of three annual treatments with alternation of chemical groups was compared. No changes in resistance/susceptibility status were observed in both tick subpopulations. These results show that the application of a particular drug once a year within a scheme of alternation with other chemical groups could be an appropriate strategy to delay the development of resistance. Data of the third case study showed that environmental constraints is not only a key modulator of R. microplus abundance but could also affect the evolution of resistance in the tick populations. The decreasing trend of LC50 values in the tick subpopulation not exposed to chemical treatments but also in that subpopulation exposed to three annual chemical treatments under unfavourable environmental conditions allow us to hypothesise that environmental constraints can modify the levels of resistance in a tick population because it can constitute a stronger selection factor than the treatments themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Morel
- Instituto de Investigación de la Cadena Láctea (IdICaL) (INTA-CONICET), Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, INTA E.E.A. Rafaela, Rafaela, Argentina
| | - Jorgelina Torrents
- Instituto de Investigación de la Cadena Láctea (IdICaL) (INTA-CONICET), Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, INTA E.E.A. Rafaela, Rafaela, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Esperanza, Argentina
| | - Macarena Sarli
- Instituto de Investigación de la Cadena Láctea (IdICaL) (INTA-CONICET), Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, INTA E.E.A. Rafaela, Rafaela, Argentina
| | - Maria V Rossner
- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Colonia Benítez (INTA EEA Colonia Benítez), Colonia Benítez, Argentina
| | - Adrián L Lifschitz
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Centro de Investigación Veterinaria de Tandil (CIVETAN), CONICET-CICPBA, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, UNCPBA, Tandil, Argentina
| | - Santiago Nava
- Instituto de Investigación de la Cadena Láctea (IdICaL) (INTA-CONICET), Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, INTA E.E.A. Rafaela, Rafaela, Argentina
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Hidalgo D, Ramírez JL, Navarrete M, Cevallos V, Ramos M, Bravo B, Carranza K, Montes V, Pérez de León AÁ. Research advances in Ecuador on use of entomopathogenic fungi for control of the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus: the case of Beauveria bassiana sensu lato strain INIAP L3B3. FRONTIERS IN FUNGAL BIOLOGY 2025; 6:1492395. [PMID: 40248492 PMCID: PMC12004127 DOI: 10.3389/ffunb.2025.1492395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2025] [Indexed: 04/19/2025]
Abstract
Ecuador is one of the countries in the world where ticks and tick-borne diseases are major constraints on cattle health and productivity. The intense use of synthetic acaricides to manage tick infestations resulted in widespread acaricide resistance in the tick Rhipicephalus microplus, which is known to infest over 75% of the farms where cattle are raised in the country. Sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives to control the cattle tick R. microplus are needed urgently. This minireview describes a project at the Santo Domingo Experimental Station of the National Institute of Agricultural Research to develop biopesticides for tick management to exemplify advances in collaborative research on the use of entomopathogenic fungi as active ingredients, or mycopesticides, in formulations to control R. microplus. Research and development conducted in multiple phases revealed the in vitro and in vivo acaricidal properties of B. bassiana sensu lato (s.l.) strain INIAP L3B3. These efforts followed efficacy and safety norms issued by the government agency of Ecuador in charge of controls and regulations to protect an improve animal health, plant health, and food safety. Results described herein indicate that B. bassiana s.l. INIAP L3B3 can be registered as an eco-friendly mycopesticide alternative to synthetic chemical acaricides or could complement conventional chemical acaricide applications for integrated R. microplus management programs in support of sustainable cattle raising in Ecuador.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Hidalgo
- Laboratory of Plant Protection, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), Santo Domingo Research Station, La Concordia, Ecuador
| | - José Luis Ramírez
- Crop Bioprotection Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Peoria, IL, United States
| | - Mercedes Navarrete
- Laboratory of Plant Protection, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), Santo Domingo Research Station, La Concordia, Ecuador
| | - Víctor Cevallos
- Laboratory of Plant Protection, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), Santo Domingo Research Station, La Concordia, Ecuador
| | - Mario Ramos
- Laboratory of Plant Protection, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), Santo Domingo Research Station, La Concordia, Ecuador
| | - Bill Bravo
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador
| | - Klever Carranza
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador
| | - Víctor Montes
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador
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Ferreira PT, Bidone NDB, Groff F, da Silva PS, de Jesus MS, Pellegrini DDCP, Doyle RL, Reck J, Klafke G. Prevalence of and potential risk factors for multiple resistance to acaricides in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus ticks: A survey in the state of Rio Grande Do Sul, Brazil. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2025; 39:134-145. [PMID: 39404504 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 09/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2025]
Abstract
The cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Ixodida, Ixodidae) is responsible for significant economic losses in bovine production in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Control of this tick predominantly involves the use of chemical acaricides; however, their indiscriminate use has led to the selection of resistant populations. A survey on tick populations was conducted in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in Brazil, to assess the prevalence of multiple resistance to acaricides in cattle farms. Additionally, questionnaires were administered to identify potential risk factors associated with multiple resistance to acaricides. In total, 176 farms with a bovine population of ≥40 cattle were randomly assigned for tick sampling. The resistance to six acaricidal compounds was investigated by bioassays. A larval packet test was performed for amitraz, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, fipronil and ivermectin. Fluazuron was screened using an adult immersion test. Multiple resistance to acaricides (i.e., resistance to three or more compounds) was detected in 173 samples, representing 98% of the total samples. Among these samples, 125 (71%) showed resistance to all six compounds tested. Additionally, we classified the resistance intensity into four levels (I to IV) based on the quartile distribution of the bioassay data. Ten samples (6%) showed high and very high levels (III and IV) of resistance to all six compounds tested. Three variables were significantly associated with multiple resistance to the six acaricides tested: (i) use of injectable acaricides to control ticks, (ii) application of more than five acaricide treatments per year, and (iii) farms with larger herds (≥232 animals). These results regarding widespread resistance and the emergence of multiple resistance to acaricides ticks are alarming and highlight the significant challenge of tick control in southern Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Teixeira Ferreira
- Departamento de Diagnóstico e Pesquisa Agropecuária, Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Brazil
| | - Nathalia de Bem Bidone
- Departamento de Defesa Sanitária Animal, Secretaria de Agricultura, Pecuária, Produção Sustentável e Irrigação (SEAPI) do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Fernando Groff
- Departamento de Defesa Sanitária Animal, Secretaria de Agricultura, Pecuária, Produção Sustentável e Irrigação (SEAPI) do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Silva da Silva
- Departamento de Diagnóstico e Pesquisa Agropecuária, Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Brazil
| | - Mariana Silveira de Jesus
- Departamento de Diagnóstico e Pesquisa Agropecuária, Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Rovaina Laureano Doyle
- Departamento de Diagnóstico e Pesquisa Agropecuária, Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Brazil
| | - José Reck
- Departamento de Diagnóstico e Pesquisa Agropecuária, Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Klafke
- Departamento de Diagnóstico e Pesquisa Agropecuária, Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Brazil
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Jongejan F, Berger L, Reck J, Ferreira PT, de Jesus MS, Scott FB, de Avelar BR, Guimarães BG, Correia TR, Muhanguzi D, Vudriko P, Byaruhanga J, Tumwebaze M, Nagagi Y, Temba V, Biguezoton AS, Farougou S, Adehan S, Jumba H, Homminga L, Hulsebos I, Petersen A, Klafke G. RaTexT®: a novel rapid tick exposure test for detecting acaricide resistance in Rhipicephalus microplus ticks in Brazil. Parasit Vectors 2024; 17:365. [PMID: 39198870 PMCID: PMC11360494 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-024-06448-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acaricide resistance in cattle ticks is a significant concern in (sub)tropical regions, particularly Brazil. The Larval Packet Test (LPT) is the standard laboratory bioassay for resistance diagnosis, which requires triplicates of seven acaricidal dilutions plus controls to cover larval mortalities ranging between 0 and 100%. The value of the LPT lies in providing resistance ratios based on the ratio between the LC50 calculated with potentially resistant and susceptible ticks. However, LC50 ratios are difficult to translate into practical advice for farmers. Moreover, LPT requires laboratory facilities to maintain susceptible tick colonies, and it takes 6 weeks to obtain the larvae to be tested by LPT derived from engorged female ticks collected from cattle in the field. Our novel approach was twofold: first, we upgraded the LPT to the Resistance Intensity Test (RIT) by adopting the latest WHO guidelines for resistance detection in mosquitoes, which combines a 1 × recommended dose with 5 × and 10 × concentrated doses to reveal low, moderate and high resistance intensity, respectively. This reduced the number of test papers and tick larvae and, more importantly, provided relevant information on the resistance level. Our second innovative step was to abolish testing larvae entirely and expose partly engorged adult ticks to the same acaricidal doses immediately after removing them from cattle in the field. This resulted in the Rapid Tick exposure Test (RaTexT®), wherein partly engorged adult ticks were exposed to an acaricide-impregnated, specially designed matrix providing test results within 24 h. This approach directly compared resistance detection in tick larvae in the RIT with resistance in adult ticks in RaTexT®. METHODS Laboratory validation was conducted in Brazil with resistant and susceptible colonies of Rhipicephalus microplus ticks. For field validation, adult R. microplus ticks collected from different cattle farms in Brazil were evaluated for resistance to RaTexT®, and the results regarding their larval progenies were compared with those for the RIT. Partly engorged adult ticks derived from cattle infested with laboratory and field strains of R. microplus were exposed to deltamethrin in RaTexT® containers, which contained six rows of four interconnected compartments, accommodating five to eight semi-engorged female ticks with a preferred size ranging between 5 and 8 mm. The corresponding larvae of each strain were exposed in the RIT to the same deltamethrin concentrations in filter papers. RESULTS In RaTexT®, mortality in adult ticks from a resistant strain of R. microplus from Seropédica in Brazil was 38.4%, 54.2% and 75.0% at the 1 ×, 5 × and 10 × doses of deltamethrin, respectively. In RIT, mortality of larvae from the same resistant strain was 2.0%, 4.9% and 19.5% at 1 ×, 5 × and 10 × doses, respectively. The results of RaTexT® and RIT agreed since both tests identified a high level of resistance based on a cut-off of 90% mortality. In RaTexT®, mortality of adult ticks from a susceptible strain originating from Porto Alegre was 73.8%, 92.9% and 97.6% at the 1 ×, 5 × and 10 × doses, respectively. In RIT, mortality of larvae from the susceptible strain was 95.2%, 95.2% and 96.8% at the 1 ×, 5 × and 10 × doses, respectively. Interestingly, both tests identified a low number of unexpected resistant individuals in the susceptible strain since the mortality of neither larvae nor adults reached 100%. This effect remained unnoticed in the LPT, wherein a resistance ratio of 159.5 was found based on the LC50 of the resistant strain divided by the LC50 of the susceptible strain. Next, RaTexT® was compared with RIT using adult and larval ticks derived from three field strains of R. microplus in Brazil. RaTexT® detected high levels of resistance to deltamethrin in adult ticks in all strains, which was confirmed in larvae tested by the RIT. Both tests agreed on the same resistance level with significantly lower mortality rates in larvae than in adult ticks. CONCLUSIONS RaTexT® is a novel rapid pen-site test for detecting acaricide resistance in adult livestock ticks. It potentially replaces laborious tests using larval ticks and provides results within 24 h relevant to acaricide resistance management of livestock ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frans Jongejan
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, Republic of South Africa.
- TBD International BV, BioScience Center, Wageningen University & Research, Runderweg 6, 8219 PK, Lelystad, The Netherlands.
| | - Laura Berger
- TBD International BV, BioScience Center, Wageningen University & Research, Runderweg 6, 8219 PK, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - José Reck
- Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor, Estrada do Conde, 6000, Eldorado do Sul, RS, 92990-000, Brazil
| | - Priscila Teixeira Ferreira
- Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor, Estrada do Conde, 6000, Eldorado do Sul, RS, 92990-000, Brazil
| | - Mariana Silveira de Jesus
- Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor, Estrada do Conde, 6000, Eldorado do Sul, RS, 92990-000, Brazil
| | - Fabio Barbour Scott
- Instituto de Veterinária da Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, BR-465, Brazil
| | - Barbara Rauta de Avelar
- Instituto de Veterinária da Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, BR-465, Brazil
| | - Brena Gava Guimarães
- Instituto de Veterinária da Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, BR-465, Brazil
| | - Thais Ribeiro Correia
- Instituto de Veterinária da Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, BR-465, Brazil
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Patrick Vudriko
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Joseph Byaruhanga
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Maria Tumwebaze
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Yakob Nagagi
- Tanzania Plant Health and Pesticides Authority (TPHPA), P.O. Box 3024, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Violet Temba
- Tanzania Plant Health and Pesticides Authority (TPHPA), P.O. Box 3024, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Abel S Biguezoton
- Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l'élevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES) Bobo-Dioulasso, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Souaïbou Farougou
- Ecole Polytechnique d'Abomey-Calavi, Université Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Republic of Benin
| | - Safiou Adehan
- Ecole Polytechnique d'Abomey-Calavi, Université Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Republic of Benin
| | - Humphrey Jumba
- International Livestock Research Institute, P.O.Box 30709, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | - Laura Homminga
- TBD International BV, BioScience Center, Wageningen University & Research, Runderweg 6, 8219 PK, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Iris Hulsebos
- TBD International BV, BioScience Center, Wageningen University & Research, Runderweg 6, 8219 PK, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Alita Petersen
- TBD International BV, BioScience Center, Wageningen University & Research, Runderweg 6, 8219 PK, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Guilherme Klafke
- Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor, Estrada do Conde, 6000, Eldorado do Sul, RS, 92990-000, Brazil.
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Vanwambeke S, Lambin E, Meyfroidt P, Asaaga F, Millins C, Purse B. Land system governance shapes tick-related public and animal health risks. JOURNAL OF LAND USE SCIENCE 2024; 19:78-96. [PMID: 38690402 PMCID: PMC11057406 DOI: 10.1080/1747423x.2024.2330379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Land cover and land use have established effects on hazard and exposure to vector-borne diseases. While our understanding of the proximate and distant causes and consequences of land use decisions has evolved, the focus on the proximate effects of landscape on disease ecology remains dominant. We argue that land use governance, viewed through a land system lens, affects tick-borne disease risk. Governance affects land use trajectories and potentially shapes landscapes favourable to ticks or increases contact with ticks by structuring human-land interactions. We illustrate the role of land use legacies, trade-offs in land-use decisions, and social inequities in access to land resources, information and decision-making, with three cases: Kyasanur Forest disease in India, Lyme disease in the Outer Hebrides (Scotland), and tick acaricide resistance in cattle in Ecuador. Land use governance is key to managing the risk of tick-borne diseases, by affecting the hazard and exposure. We propose that land use governance should consider unintended consequences on infectious disease risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- S.O Vanwambeke
- Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Earth and Life Institute (ELI), Earth and Climate Pole (ELIC), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - E.F Lambin
- Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Earth and Life Institute (ELI), Earth and Climate Pole (ELIC), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - P Meyfroidt
- Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Earth and Life Institute (ELI), Earth and Climate Pole (ELIC), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique F.R.S.-FNRS, Brussels, Belgium
| | - F.A Asaaga
- UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK
| | - C Millins
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences (IVES), University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - B.V Purse
- UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK
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Pérez-Otáñez X, Rodríguez-Hidalgo R, Enríquez S, Celi-Erazo M, Benítez W, Saegerman C, Vaca-Moyano F, Ron-Garrido L, Vanwambeke SO. High-resolution prediction models for Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma cajennense s.l. ticks affecting cattle and their spatial distribution in continental Ecuador using bioclimatic factors. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2024; 92:439-462. [PMID: 38388882 PMCID: PMC11035444 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-023-00883-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
In Ecuador, the main tick species affecting cattle are Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma cajennense sensu lato. Understanding their spatial distribution is crucial. To assess their distribution, data from 2895 farms visited between 2012 and 2017 were utilized. Ticks were collected during animal inspections, with each farm's location georeferenced. Bioclimatic variables and vapor pressure deficit data were obtained from Climatologies at High resolution for the Earth´s Land Surface Areas (CHELSA) dataset. They were overlaid to develop predictive maps for each species using Random Forest (RF) models. The cross-validation results for RF prediction models showed high accuracy for both R. microplus and A. cajennense s.l. presence with values of accuracy = 0.97 and 0.98, sensitivity = 0.96 and 0.99, and specificity = 0.96 and 0.93, respectively. A carefully selected subset of bioclimatic variables was used to describe the presence of each tick species. Higher levels of precipitation had positive effect on the presence of R. microplus but a negative effect on A. cajennense s.l. In contrast, isothermality (BIO3) was more important for the presence of A. cajennense s.l. compared to R. microplus. As a result, R. microplus had a broader distribution across the country, while A. cajennense s.l. was mainly found in coastal areas with evident seasonality. The coexistence of both species in some regions could be attributed to transitional zones, whereas high altitudes limited tick presence. This information can aid in developing appropriate tick management plans, particularly considering A. cajennense s.l.'s broad host range species and R. microplus's specificity for cattle. Moreover, the predictive models can identify areas at risk of associated challenging hemoparasite, requiring special attention and mitigation measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximena Pérez-Otáñez
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador.
- Center for Earth and Climate Research, Earth & Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain-UCLouvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium.
| | - Richar Rodríguez-Hidalgo
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Sandra Enríquez
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Maritza Celi-Erazo
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Washington Benítez
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Claude Saegerman
- Research Unit of Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Applied to Veterinary Science (UREAR-ULiège), Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH) Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liege, Liège, Belgium
| | - Franklin Vaca-Moyano
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Lenin Ron-Garrido
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
- Facultad de Ciencias Agrícolas, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Sophie O Vanwambeke
- Center for Earth and Climate Research, Earth & Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain-UCLouvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
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